Abstract
All nations which have undergone a nutrition transition have experienced increased frequency and falling latency of chronic degenerative diseases, which are largely driven by chronic inflammatory stress. Dietary supplementation is a valid strategy to reduce the risk and severity of such disorders. Palmitoylethanolamide (PEA) is an endocannabinoid-like lipid mediator with extensively documented anti-inflammatory, analgesic, antimicrobial, immunomodulatory and neuroprotective effects. It is well tolerated and devoid of side effects in animals and humans. PEA’s actions on multiple molecular targets while modulating multiple inflammatory mediators provide therapeutic benefits in many applications, including immunity, brain health, allergy, pain modulation, joint health, sleep and recovery. PEA’s poor oral bioavailability, a major obstacle in early research, has been overcome by advanced delivery systems now licensed as food supplements. This review summarizes the functionality of PEA, supporting its use as an important dietary supplement for lifestyle management.
Highlights
Influenza infection is characterized by increased production of inflammatory cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor α (TNF)-α, interleukin- (IL-) 1, IL-6, and IL-10, which may lead to a hyper-inflammatory state known as a ‘cytokine storm’ [94]
Compared to trauma-exposed individuals without post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) and correlated with a greater symptom severity [30]. This suggests that endogenous NAE levels are insufficient to restore homeostasis in chronic aversive states, which would explain why PTSD patients self-medicate with cannabis [30] and why, in animal models of AD [33] and traumatic brain injury (TBI) [57,58,81], PEA administration improves memory function and reduces anxiety, aggressiveness and depression [57,58,59,81]
Primary dysmenorrhea has no clear underlying pathology and affects otherwise healthy individuals. It is characterized by painful cramping in the pelvic and lower abdominal region, which may radiate to the lower back and legs, and can cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and headache
Summary
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. PEA’s multiple mechanisms of action generate therapeutic benefits in many disorders, including allergic reactions [17,21,25,26], influenza [24], common cold [24], chronic pain [27,28], joint pain [29], psychopathologies [27,30] and neurodegeneration [14,15,16,17,19] They contribute to enhanced muscle recovery [31] and improved cognition [26,32], mood [26,28,33].
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