Abstract
A palm waste kernel shell biomass was converted into bio-based sulphonated activated carbon and further used for preparation of a sulphated zirconium-doped activated catalyst (Zr-AC-HSO3) by wet impregnation method. The structural, physicochemical, morphological, textural, and thermal characteristics of the synthesized Zr-AC-HSO3 catalyst were characterized by X-ray diffraction (XRD), Brunauer–Emmett–Teller (BET) surface area analysis, temperature-programmed desorption of ammonia (TPD-NH3), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FT-IR), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM). The catalytic activity of the 20 wt% Zr-AC-HSO3 catalyst was further evaluated for esterification of palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD). This study achieved a maximum fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) yield of 94.3% and free fatty acid (FFA) conversion of 96.1% via the esterification over 20 wt% Zr-AC-HSO3 using 3 wt% catalyst concentration, 15:1 methanol:PFAD molar ratio at 75 °C for 3 h. The experiments to test for reusability showed that the spent catalyst was stable for five successive reaction cycles, with a FFA conversion of 80% in the fifth cycle, without additional treatment. The critical fuel features of the synthesized PFAD methyl ester were determined and were within the range of EN14214 and ASTM D6751 standards.
Highlights
Energy demands are continually increasing, globally, due to increases in population and technology [1,2]
We proposed here that an oxoniom ion initiates protonation of the carboxylic acid group, which is prone to attack by an alcohol molecule
The results revealed the importance of varying the loading of the zirconium into activated carbon-based catalysts on the catalytic activity
Summary
Energy demands are continually increasing, globally, due to increases in population and technology [1,2]. The energy needed to produce goods and other services, such as transportation, is still mainly provided by conventional fossil fuels. Apart from the possible future depletion of the oil reserves, fossil fuels are associated with some major environmental issues. Environmental pollution, poisonous exhaust from internal combustion engines, and their non-biodegradable nature are severe concerns and long-term threats for humans and aquatic life [3,4]. These reasons have encouraged the search for renewable resources, as alternatives to conventional fossil fuels.
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