Pacopampa: Early evidence of violence at a ceremonial site in the northern Peruvian highlands.

Tomohito Nagaoka,Yuji Seki,Daniel Morales Chocano,Kazuhiro Uzawa,Dong Hoon Shin

doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0185421

Abstract

ObjectivesPacopampa, a ceremonial complex in Peru’s northern highlands, reveals early evidence of trauma in the Middle to Late Formative Period coinciding with the emergence of social stratification in the area. We examine the prevalence of trauma in human remains found at the site and present evidence of the circumstances surrounding the deaths of individuals who lived during the early stages of Andean civilization.Materials and methodsThe materials are the remains of 104 individuals (38 non-adult and 66 adult) from the Middle to Late Formative Periods. We explored trauma macroscopically and recorded patterns based on skeletons’ locations, age at death, sex, social class, and chronology.ResultsWe detected trauma in remains over the Middle to Late Formative Periods. While the prevalence of trauma was minimal in the Middle Formative Period, skeletons from the subsequent era exhibit more severe disturbances. However, all the skeletons show signs of healing and affected individuals experienced a low degree of trauma.DiscussionGiven the archaeological context (the remains were recovered from sites of ceremonial practices), as well as the equal distribution of trauma among both sexes and a lack of defensive architecture, it is plausible that rituals, rather than organized warfare or raids, caused most of the exhibited trauma. Pacopampa was home to a complex society founded on ritual activity in a ceremonial center: this is indicated by the presence of ritual violence in a society that built impressively large, ceremonial architecture and developed social stratification without any political control of surplus agricultural goods.

Highlights

Mortality and morbidity caused by trauma are clues to assessing how various cultures and societies may have influenced behavior in their members [1]
The materials are the remains of 104 individuals (38 non-adult and 66 adult) from the Middle to Late Formative Periods
While the prevalence of trauma was minimal in the Middle Formative Period, skeletons from the subsequent era exhibit more severe disturbances

Summary

Introduction

Mortality and morbidity caused by trauma are clues to assessing how various cultures and societies may have influenced behavior in their members [1]. Archaeological remains of fortifications, defensive architecture, settlement patterns, weapons, iconography, and symbols hint at past violent behavior, human skeletons with traumatic injuries (e.g., spear injuries, decapitations, mutilations, scalping, and depressed skull fractures) serve as direct evidence [1]. Andean civilization experienced multiple empires until the end of Inca rule in 1532, and was closely linked with violence throughout, starting in the Archaic Period (8000–1800 BC) [2]. The first proof of trauma possibly caused by violence in the Andes region was found among human remains from Chinchorro (7000–1600 BC) in northern Chile, in the South Andes [5], where most of the skeletons’ injuries were concentrated in the crania, and 24.6% of the adults exhibited healed skull fractures [5]. The oldest evidence of human sacrifice in the region, dating back to 5000 BC, appeared on the central coast of Peru: a number of children were buried under houses as a ritual infanticide practice at the site of La Paloma [6]

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Methods

Conclusion