Abstract
Kidney disease represents a serious global health problem. One of the main concerns is its late diagnosis, only feasible in a progressed disease state. The lack of a clinical manifestation in the early stages and the fact that the commonly measured parameters of renal function are markedly reduced only during advanced stages of the disease are the main cause. Changes at the molecular level of the kidney tissue occur even before nitrogenous substances, such as creatinine and urea, start to accumulate in the blood. Renal proximal tubules contain a large number of mitochondria and are critical for the energy-demanding process of reabsorption of water and solutes. Mitochondria are the largest producers of oxygen radicals, which, in turn, increase the susceptibility of kidneys to oxidative stress-induced damage. Free radicals and prooxidants produced during acute or chronic kidney injury may further aggravate the course of the disease and play a role in the pathogenesis of subsequent complications. Prevention might be the solution in CKD, but patients are often reluctant to undergo preventive examinations. Noninvasive markers and the possibility to obtain samples at home might help to increase compliance. This review will provide an overview of the possible uses of markers of oxidative status in noninvasive biofluids in patients with renal disease.
Highlights
Kidney disease is a worldwide health burden with a high economic cost, which includes costs for physician visits, emergency department visits, dialysis, drug cost, etc. [1,2,3]
The aim of this review is to focus and designate current knowledge on oxidative stress biomarkers obtained noninvasively that could be used in patients with renal disease
This study has demonstrated that the saliva collection protocol might be of importance when measuring markers of oxidative stress in relation to kidney disease
Summary
Renal tubule cells are rich in mitochondria, because the reabsorption of solutes is energy demanding This makes kidney cells especially vulnerable to oxidative stress and damage [8,9,10]. Alternative biofluids are being investigated as a potential biomarker source Both saliva and urine collection is inexpensive, easy to obtain in sufficient volumes, fast, and without the risk of vessel injury or infection [14]. The use of these alternative biofluids in clinical practice would provide practitioners with an easier means of disease monitoring
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