Abstract
Chronic kidney disease is highly prevalent worldwide. The decline of renal function is associated with inadequate removal of a variety of uremic toxins that exert detrimental effects on cells functioning, thus affecting the cardiovascular system. The occurrence of cardiovascular aberrations in CKD is related to the impact of traditional risk factors and non-traditional CKD-associated risk factors, including anemia; inflammation; oxidative stress; the presence of some uremic toxins; and factors related to the type, frequency of dialysis and the composition of dialysis fluid. Cardiovascular diseases are the most frequent cause for the deaths of patients with all stages of renal failure. The kidney is one of the vital sources of antioxidant enzymes, therefore, the impairment of this organ is associated with decreased levels of these enzymes as well as increased levels of pro-oxidants. Uremic toxins have been shown to play a vital role in the onset of oxidative stress. Hemodialysis itself also enhances oxidative stress. Elevated oxidative stress has been demonstrated to be strictly related to kidney and cardiac damage as it aggravates kidney dysfunction and induces cardiac hypertrophy. Antioxidant therapies may prove to be beneficial since they can decrease oxidative stress, reduce uremic cardiovascular toxicity and improve survival.
Highlights
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is highly prevalent worldwide, and it is most frequent in developed countries in Europe, USA, Canada, and Australia [1,2]
The occurrence of cardiovascular aberrations in CKD is related to the influence of traditional risk factors and non-traditional CKD-associated risk factors, including anemia; inflammation; mineral and bone disease abnormalities; oxidative stress; the presence of some uremic toxins; and factors related to the type, frequency of dialysis and the composition of fluid used during the procedure [6,7,8,9]
Colombo et al [83] confirmed the existence of a relationship between uremia and oxidative stress, which was assessed on the basis of severe protein oxidative damage in end-stage renal disease (ESRD) patients on maintenance hemodialysis (HD)
Summary
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is highly prevalent worldwide (between 11 and 13%), and it is most frequent in developed countries in Europe, USA, Canada, and Australia [1,2]. CKD progresses as GFR decreases and this process results from the deterioration of kidney function, which greatly influences body homeostasis and leads to biological and clinical dysfunctions, including the disturbances in cellular energetic metabolism, protein malnutrition, change in nitrogen input/output, insulin resistance, and significant increase in the synthesis of inflammation/oxidative stress mediators [2]. It progresses to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and ends up with the necessity for renal replacement therapy (hemodialysis or peritoneal dialysis) or renal transplantation [3]. Cardiovascular diseases (CAD) are the most frequent cause of death for patients with all stages of renal failure, and they are present in >50% of patients undergoing dialysis [4]
Sign-in/Register to view highlights & summary Sign-in/Register to access full text options 
Talk to us
Join us for a 30 min session where you can share your feedback and ask us any queries you have
Schedule a callDisclaimer: All third-party content on this website/platform is and will remain the property of their respective owners and is provided on "as is" basis without any warranties, express or implied. Use of third-party content does not indicate any affiliation, sponsorship with or endorsement by them. Any references to third-party content is to identify the corresponding services and shall be considered fair use under The CopyrightLaw.
