Abstract
The prevalence of waterpipe tobacco smoking (WTS), which is also known as ghalyan, shisha or hookah, is increasing rapidly around the world, especially among youth. Growing interest in this form of tobacco smoking can be traced, in part, to the use of flavored tobacco products, social acceptability as a safer option than cigarettes, and its consideration as a relaxation method or entertainment. However, there is a well-established association between WTS and oxidative stress that causes irreversible chronic pathological conditions such as cardiovascular and respiratory problems, as well as different types of cancers, and thus increases the risk of mortality. Clearly, induction of inflammation status through increased reactive oxygen species (ROS), which in turn leads to oxidative stress and harm to lipids, DNA, and proteins, is the most plausible mechanism to explain the potential harmful effects of WTS. Unlike WTS, well-designed exercise training programs increase ROS to the extent that it is beneficial to the body. In this study, we aimed to review available evidence on the impact of exercise training on oxidative stress and inflammation status. We also summarize the effect of acute and chronic WTS on different exercise capacities.
Highlights
The consumption of tobacco is one of the most serious public health problems the world has ever faced, with more than 8 million deaths a year that can be directly attribute to tobacco smoking or are a result of being exposed to second-hand smoke [1,2]
World Health Organization (WHO) as “products entirely or partly made of the leaf tobacco as raw material which are manufactured to be used for smoking, sucking, chewing or snuffing” with about
Protocol improved VO2max values and some respiratory parameters (i.e., forced vital capacity (FVC), FEV1, and FEF50% ), only percentage of peak expiratory flow (PEF) increased by moderate-intensity interval training (MIIT) program [72,74]
Summary
The consumption of tobacco is one of the most serious public health problems the world has ever faced, with more than 8 million deaths a year that can be directly attribute to tobacco smoking or are a result of being exposed to second-hand smoke [1,2]. On the other hand, socializing, relaxation, pleasure and entertainment are considered as the main motives for WTS popularity [10] It is well-documented that WTS on both a short- and long-term basis is probably associated with a variety of adverse health outcomes including cardiovascular and respiratory disease, several types of cancer and an increased risk of mortality [13,14,15]. There is overwhelming evidence that the impact of WTS on inflammatory responses and antioxidant status is similar or even worse than that of cigarette smoking [11,12,16,17,18,19] In this context, Khabour et al showed that acute (7 days) [11] and chronic (6 weeks) [16] exposure to waterpipe tobacco smoke induced significant alterations in inflammatory cytokines, oxidative stress markers and absolute count of macrophages, lymphocytes and neutrophils in the lung of mice. (2) impact of WTS on exercise capacity in waterpipe users
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