Origins of medieval Exchequer accounting

Abstract

The origins of the English Exchequer's accounting system have been the subject of controversy since fitz Nigel's treatise in c.1179. The English Exchequer system was the first known medieval charge and discharge system. In England, it became the dominant accounting system in the Middle Ages and persisted in some English institutions until the nineteenth century. This article explores the possible origins of the English Exchequer accounting system which have been suggested by previous writers: Carolingian Empire; contemporary Western states (Sicily, Flanders, France or Normandy); Anglo-Saxon England; Norman England; or invented under Henry I. The balance of probabilities suggests little evidence of a foreign influence on the English Exchequer, rather that the English Exchequer influenced other states. Certain features of the Exchequer appear to have existed in England before 1100 either in Anglo-Saxon England (territorial structure, the treasury, coinage and tallies, pre-existing tax system) or in Norman England (the King's household, scribes and literacy). Finally, in Henry I's reign the abacus, accounting rolls and Justices in Eyre were developed. These notable features of Exchequer accounting appear to have been ‘assembled’ into a workable system by Roger of Salisbury, under the direction of Henry I. A key trigger for this was probably the need to raise a marriage aid for Henry I's daughter, Matilda. The paper also shows that the accountability based system of the Exchequer shares some similar characteristics with earlier societies in Mesopotamia and in Rome.