Abstract
Fine Yin-Shang bronzes containing lead with puzzlingly highly radiogenic isotopic compositions appeared suddenly in the alluvial plain of the Yellow River around 1400 BC. The Tongkuangyu copper deposit in central China is known to have lead isotopic compositions even more radiogenic and scattered than those of the Yin-Shang bronzes. Most of the Yin-Shang bronzes are tin-copper alloys with high lead contents. The low lead and tin concentrations, together with the less radiogenic lead isotopes of bronzes in an ancient smelting site nearby, however, exclude Tongkuangyu as the sole supplier of the Yin-Shang bronzes. Interestingly, tin ingots/prills and bronzes found in Africa also have highly radiogenic lead isotopes, but it remains mysterious as to how such African bronzes may have been transported to China. Nevertheless, these African bronzes are the only bronzes outside China so far reported that have lead isotopes similar to those of the Yin-Shang bronzes. All these radiogenic lead isotopes plot along ~2.0–2.5 Ga isochron lines, implying that deposits around Archean cratons are the most likely candidates for the sources. African cratons along the Nile and even micro-cratons in the Sahara desert may have similar lead signatures. These places were probably accessible by ancient civilizations, and thus are the most favorable suppliers of the bronzes.
Highlights
An important archaeological artifact for understanding the early cultural and technological development of China is the splendid Yin-Shang bronze wares dating back to ca. 1400 BC
Yin-Shang bronzes and Jinsha Pb-Zn deposit (a), Sanxingdui bronzes (b), Lala copper deposit in southwestern China, at the east margin of the Tibetan Plateau (c,d) and copper ores from Tongkuangyu deposit[22] and bronzes from Yuanqu in central China[24,26] (e,f) (Supplementary Table)
It has been proposed that the Yin-Shang people might have gotten raw materials from southwestern China, e.g., Jinsha for lead and Lala for copper, because the Sanxingdui bronzes from there all have essentially the same highly radiogenic lead isotopes as those of early Yin-Shang (Fig. 1a,b)[2]
Summary
Yin-Shang bronzes mark a peak in the late Bronze Age all over the world, with a variety of fine bronze wares, e.g., the 832.84 kilogram giant Houmuwu Ding bronze vessel of 133 centimeter height, 110 centimeter length, and 79 centimeter width. Importantly, the lead isotopes of the early Yin-Shang bronzes are highly radiogenic[1,2,6,7,8] and distinctively different from any of the known lead-zinc or tin deposits in China[9]. It has been proposed that the Yin-Shang people might have gotten raw materials from southwestern China, e.g., Jinsha for lead and Lala for copper, because the Sanxingdui bronzes from there all have essentially the same highly radiogenic lead isotopes as those of early Yin-Shang (Fig. 1a,b)[2]. The lead isotopes of Jinsha and other lead-zinc deposits in southwestern China, have considerably younger lead-lead isochron ages than those of the Yin-Shang and Sanxingdui bronzes (Fig. 1a,b). Experiments have shown that lead isotope fractionation during smelting is very small[18,19,20], following the Rayleigh fractionation law, and would have only a negligible effect on the Yin-Shang bronzes even after repeated processing[21]
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