Abstract
The occurrence and risk assessment of seven organophosphorus flame retardants (OPFRs) in surface water samples within the Vaal River catchment in South Africa were investigated. Wastewater treatment works effluents as the potential sources of OPFRs in surface water were also analysed. In surface water, tris-(chloro-propyl)-phosphate (TCPP) – the total of the three TCPP isomers studied, and tris-(2, 3 dibromo-propyl)-phosphate (TDBPP) were the most abundant OPFRs, with mean concentrations of 276 ng/L and 227 ng/L; respectively. In effluent water samples, the most abundant OPFR was TCPP with a mean concentration of 700 ng/L. A high detection frequency (> 80%) was observed for six of the seven OPFRs with tris-(1, 3- dichloro-propyl)-phosphate (TDCPP) detection frequency being the lowest at 17%. Assessment of risk to aquatic organisms using risk quotients based on measured environmental concentrations (MEC) and predicted no-effect concentrations (PNEC) ranged from no significant risk (for algae, daphnia and fish) to low potential for adverse effects (for algae and fish).
Highlights
Organophosphorus compounds (OPs) are esters of phosphoric acid that are increasingly used as plasticizers and by the flame retardant industry to replace regulated brominated diphenyl ethers (Kim et al, 2013; Wei et al, 2015)
In the present study, 15 representative surface water samples located in the Vaal River catchment and 6 wastewater treatment works (WWTWs) effluents were selected as target sites to gain insight regarding levels and risk assessment of OPs in the aquatic environment
The recoveries of the spiked MilliQ water ranged from 74–108%, for the surface water sample after background concentration correction ranged from 61–92%, and the Compound L(E)C50
Summary
Organophosphorus compounds (OPs) are esters of phosphoric acid that are increasingly used as plasticizers and by the flame retardant industry to replace regulated brominated diphenyl ethers (pentaBDE, octaBDE and decaBDE) (Kim et al, 2013; Wei et al, 2015). The environmental concerns associated with the use of these compounds as flame retardants is that they have the potential to be released into surface water bodies either directly or via industrial and wastewater treatment works (WWTWs) discharges (Meyer and Bester, 2004), and from atmospheric depositions (Möller et al, 2011) In this regard they have been found in water at levels of ng to μg/L (Cristale et al, 2013; Wang et al, 2011). In the present study, 15 representative surface water samples located in the Vaal River catchment and 6 WWTWs effluents were selected as target sites to gain insight regarding levels and risk assessment of OPs in the aquatic environment
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