Abstract
Pagán is an ancient city located in Myanmar that is renowned for the remains of about 4000 pagodas, stupas, temples and monasteries dating from the 11th to 13th centuries. Due to a magnitude 6.8 earthquake in 2016, more than 300 ancient buildings were seriously damaged. As a part of the post-earthquake emergency program, a diagnostic pilot project was carried out on Me-taw-ya temple wall paintings to acquire further information on the materials and on their state of conservation. This article presents our attempts at characterising the painting materials at Me-taw-ya temple using non-invasive portable energy dispersive X-ray fluorescence (ED-XRF), portable Raman spectroscopy and micro-invasive attenuated total reflectance—Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (ATR-FTIR), micro-Raman spectroscopy (µ-Raman), gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS), polarized light microscopy (PLM) and environmental scanning electron microscope—X-ray energy dispersive system (ESEM-EDS) investigations with the aim of identifying the composition of organic binders and pigments. The presence of a proteinaceous glue mixed with the lime-based plaster was ascertained and identified by GC-MS. In addition, this technique confirmed the occurrence of plant-derived gums as binders pointing to the a secco technique. Fe-based compounds, vermillion, carbon black and As-compounds were identified to have been incorporated in the palette of the murals.
Highlights
Plaster’s constitutive materials range depending on the chronology: mud, lime, sand with glue and jaggery were used in an earlier period (11th–12th century) while sand and lime were more commonly utilised in the later periods [4,5]
The net areas under the x-ray characteristic K energy lines of Al, Si, S, Cl and Ca, which were collected at 8 kV, and the net areas under the X-ray K energy lines of Fe, Ni and As and L energy lines of Hg, which were collected at 40 kV, were measured by Python multichannel analyser (PyMCA) and the data were handled by principal component analysis (PCA)
We have to consider that in the case of wall paintings with multiple layers, or when a surviving area of pigments is smaller than the irradiated area, the X-ray analyses provide the compositional information of the targeted pigments and those of the lower layer or the surrounding and underlying area
Summary
Plaster’s constitutive materials range depending on the chronology: mud, lime, sand with glue and jaggery (plant-derived sugar) were used in an earlier period (11th–12th century) while sand and lime were more commonly utilised in the later periods (from the 13th to 16th century) [4,5]. Pagán wall paintings were generally executed with a secco technique and coated with a protective varnish made out of gums or resins. Materials and executive techniques employed over the centuries in Pagán has been introduced to Burma from India, evolving in a different expression and style [10]. Glues are produced by vegetable materials (gums, pulps and saps of different plants and trees) or using animal derivatives (gelatine produced by boiling buffalo skins) [4]. The earliest reference to the use of colours and pigments, such as vermilion, red lakes, and natural ochre can be traced to the Sawhlawun inscription datable to Sakaraj-598 (1236 AD) [6]. Blue and green pigments are rare in wall paintings from the first period; greenish tones are usually obtained by mixing orpiment and bone black as in the Pahtothamya temple [6]. Through centuries, heritage buildings underwent several restorations and reconstruction interventions, as testified from ancient inscriptions and more recent plaques placed in numerous structures
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