Abstract
The optimum conditions to produce palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD)-derived-methyl esters via esterification have been demonstrated with the aid of the response surface methodology (RSM) with central composite rotatable design in the presence of heterogeneous acid catalyst. The effect of four reaction variables, reaction time (30–110 min), reaction temperature (30–70°C), catalyst concentration (1–3 wt.%) and methanol : PFAD molar ratio (3 : 1–11 : 1), were investigated. The reaction time had the most influence on the yield response, while the interaction between the reaction time and the catalyst concentration, with an F-value of 95.61, contributed the most to the esterification reaction. The model had an R2-value of 0.9855, suggesting a fit model, which gave a maximum yield of 95%. The fuel properties of produced PFAD methyl ester were appraised based on the acid value, iodine value, cloud and pour points, flash point, kinematic viscosity, density, ash and water contents and were compared with biodiesel EN 14214 and ASTM D-6751 standard limits. The PFAD methyl ester was further blended with petro-diesel from B0, B3, B5, B10, B20 and B100, on a volumetric basis. The blends were characterized by TGA, DTG and FTIR. With an acid value of 0.42 (mg KOH g−1), iodine value of 63 (g.I2/100 g), kinematic viscosity of 4.31 (mm2 s−1), the PFAD methyl ester has shown good fuel potential, as all of its fuel properties were within the permissible international standards for biodiesel.
Highlights
Several uncertainties, such as fluctuations in prices, environmental degradation and sustainability surrounding fossil fuel usage and production, have made it extremely important to exploit other viable alternatives
The synthesized catalyst was relatively stable through the fifth run, where the free fatty acid (FFA) conversion recorded was 82.1% and FAME yield was 76.3%
We have presented the interaction between the Palm fatty acid distillate (PFAD) feedstock and all the esterification reaction variables by using the response surface methodology central composite rotational design (RSM-CCRD)
Summary
Several uncertainties, such as fluctuations in prices, environmental degradation and sustainability surrounding fossil fuel usage and production, have made it extremely important to exploit other viable alternatives. Esterification of fats with high FFA and transesterification of vegetable and waste cooking oils are some of the ways through which biodiesel have been produced [3,4]. Esterification reaction involves the reaction of short-chain alcohol, mostly methanol and fatty acids with high FFA producing FAME with water as the by-product in the presence of an acidic or basic catalyst either homogeneous or heterogeneous [5]. This reaction is mostly influenced by four factors, namely: reaction time, reaction temperature, catalyst concentration and molar ratio of the feedstock and alcohol used [6]. The advantages of biodiesel far outweigh its disadvantages, as biodiesel production hopes to open new ways that will ensure a cleaner and safer environment
Sign-in/Register to view highlights & summary Sign-in/Register to access full text options 
Talk to us
Join us for a 30 min session where you can share your feedback and ask us any queries you have
Schedule a call
