Abstract
This study quantifies the shape change in elephant manus and pes anatomy with increasing body mass, using computed tomographic scanning. Most manus and pes bones, and manus tendons, maintain their shape, or become more gracile, through ontogeny. Contrary to this, tendons of the pes become significantly more robust, suggesting functional adaptation to increasingly high loads. Ankle tendon cross-sectional area (CSA) scales the highest in the long digital extensor, proportional to body mass(1.08+/-0.21), significantly greater than the highest-scaling wrist tendon (extensor carpi ulnaris, body mass(0.69+/-0.09)). These patterns of shape change relate to the marked anatomical differences between the pillar-like manus and tripod-like pes, consistent with differences in fore- and hindlimb locomotor function. The cartilaginous predigits (prepollux and prehallux) of the manus and pes also become relatively more robust through ontogeny, and their pattern of shape change does not resemble that seen in any of the 10 metacarpals and metatarsals. Their CSAs scale above isometry proportional to body mass(0.73+/-0.09) and body mass(0.82+/-0.07) respectively. We infer a supportive function for these structures, preventing collapse of the foot pad during locomotion.
Highlights
The anatomy of the feet of Asian (Elephas maximus Linnaeus 1758) and African (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach 1797) elephants is specialized to support the locomotion of the largest living land animals
Manus bone dimension exponents display an overall decrease of relative robusticity through ontogeny, but individual diameter exponents tend to be higher in lateral elements, and cross-sectional area (CSA) exponents increase laterally from metacarpals I to V
The general trend of negative allometry observed in most manual and pedal structures is consistent with observations by Main & Biewener (2004) that some bones of baby animals are ‘overdesigned’ when compared with adults
Summary
The anatomy of the feet (manus and pes) of Asian (Elephas maximus Linnaeus 1758) and African (Loxodonta africana Blumenbach 1797) elephants is specialized to support the locomotion of the largest living land animals. R. Hutchinson 2007, personal observation) that are divided into several compartments, supporting the bones of the foot away from direct contact with the substrate (Weissengruber et al 2006). Hutchinson 2007, personal observation) that are divided into several compartments, supporting the bones of the foot away from direct contact with the substrate (Weissengruber et al 2006) These pads evolved repeatedly in large tetrapods including dinosaurs (Bonnan 2003, 2005; Moreno et al 2007), making elephant foot anatomy and function significant to our understanding of large animals, both living and extinct
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