Abstract
BackgroundVolatile compounds in breastmilk (BM) likely influence flavor learning and, through the cephalic phase response, metabolism, and digestion. Little is known about the volatile compounds present in preterm BM. We investigated whether maternal or infant characteristics are associated with the profile of volatile compounds in preterm BM.MethodsUsing solid-phase microextraction coupled with gas chromatography/mass spectrometry, we analyzed volatile compounds in 400 BM samples collected from 170 mothers of preterm infants.ResultsForty volatile compounds were detected, mostly fatty acids and their esters (FA and FAe), volatile organic compounds (VOCs), aldehydes, terpenoids, alcohols, and ketones. The relative concentration of most FA and FAe increased with advancing lactation and were lower in BM of most socially deprived mothers and those with gestational diabetes (p < 0.05), but medium-chain FAs were higher in colostrum compared to transitional BM (p < 0.001). Infant sex, gestational age, and size at birth were not associated with the profile of volatile compounds in preterm BM.ConclusionsSensory-active volatile FA and FAe are the major contributors to the smell of preterm BM. The associations between lactation stage, maternal characteristics, and volatile compounds, and whether differences in volatile compounds may affect feeding behavior or metabolism, requires further research.ImpactSensory-active volatile FAs are major contributors to the smell of preterm BM and are influenced by the lactation stage and maternal characteristics.Longitudinal analysis of volatile compounds in preterm BM found that FAs increased with advancing lactation.Colostrum had a higher concentration of medium-chain FAs compared to transitional BM and the concentration of these is associated with socioeconomic status, gestational diabetes, and ethnicity.
Highlights
IntroductionBreastmilk (BM) is considered the gold standard in neonatal nutrition and breastfeeding provides several nutritional and health benefits to infants and mothers, leading to the general consensus that BM has many advantages over other feeding methods.2,3Volatile compounds originating from maternal diet and metabolism can contribute to the flavor and composition of amniotic fluid and BM, influencing fetal and infant flavor learning and later infant feeding preferences. For example, infants have been reported to demonstrate greater acceptance of weaning foods that mothers consumed during late gestation and lactation. Neonates are capable of recognizing odors from their own amniotic fluid and from their own mother’s milk and can distinguish between the smell of BM and infant formula, demonstrated by increased sucking behavior and cerebral oxygenation in response to BM. BM may be a link between the antenatal and postnatal sensory environments.8The smell and taste of food are intimately related to appreciation of food and digestion
We previously reported that volatile compounds in 15 samples of preterm BM differed from those in infant formulas largely due to the presence of specific fatty acids (FA) in BM that was absent from formulas
Sensory-active volatile FAs and their esters are the major contributors to the smell of preterm BM
Summary
Breastmilk (BM) is considered the gold standard in neonatal nutrition and breastfeeding provides several nutritional and health benefits to infants and mothers, leading to the general consensus that BM has many advantages over other feeding methods.2,3Volatile compounds originating from maternal diet and metabolism can contribute to the flavor and composition of amniotic fluid and BM, influencing fetal and infant flavor learning and later infant feeding preferences. For example, infants have been reported to demonstrate greater acceptance of weaning foods that mothers consumed during late gestation and lactation. Neonates are capable of recognizing odors from their own amniotic fluid and from their own mother’s milk and can distinguish between the smell of BM and infant formula, demonstrated by increased sucking behavior and cerebral oxygenation in response to BM. BM may be a link between the antenatal and postnatal sensory environments.8The smell and taste of food are intimately related to appreciation of food and digestion. Sensory cues from food assist digestion and metabolism by triggering a cascade of physiological responses that lead to increased salivation and peristaltic movements and the release of hormones and enzymes related to digestion.. Sensory cues from food assist digestion and metabolism by triggering a cascade of physiological responses that lead to increased salivation and peristaltic movements and the release of hormones and enzymes related to digestion.14 Promotion of these physiological responses has the potential to enhance tolerance and metabolism of enteral feeds in preterm infants in whom establishment of milk feeds can be a major determinant of hospital length of stay. The associations between lactation stage, maternal characteristics, and volatile compounds, and whether differences in volatile compounds may affect feeding behavior or metabolism, requires further research
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