Ochratoxins in Wines: A Review of Their Occurrence in the Last Decade, Toxicity, and Exposure Risk in Humans.

Bryan Ortiz-Villeda,Verónica Carrasco-Sánchez,Kateryn Aguilar-Zuniga,Olga Lobos

doi:10.3390/toxins13070478

Abstract

Ochratoxins (OTs) are mycotoxins frequently found in wines, and their contamination can occur during any stage of the winemaking process. Ochratoxin A (OTA) has been the most widely reported and the only one whose concentrations are legislated in this beverage. However, ochratoxin B, ochratoxin A methyl ester, ochratoxin B methyl ester, ochratoxin A ethyl ester, ochratoxin B ethyl ester, ochratoxin α, ochratoxin β, OTα methyl ester, OTA ethyl amide, and OTA glucose ester have also been reported in wines. Thus, detecting only OTA would lead to the underestimation of ochratoxin levels, which is a risk to human health. Considering the threat represented by the presence of ochratoxins in wines and the long-term health problems that they can cause in wine drinkers, this paper aims to review reports of the last 10 years regarding the presence of different ochratoxins in wines and how the winemaking process influences the degree of contamination, mainly by OTA. Additionally, toxicity from human exposure due to the consumption of contaminated wines is addressed.

Highlights

Ochratoxins Ochratoxins(OTs)(OTs)are are aa group group of of mycotoxins mycotoxinsproduced producedby bydifferent differentPenicilliumPenicilliumand and Aspergillus molds that contaminate crops in the field [1].These toxins are derivativesAspergillus molds that contaminate crops in the field [1]
Considering the risk of contamination by ochratoxins and the long-term health problems they can cause, this review aims to analyze the presence of ochratoxins in wines reported in the last 10 years, explore how the winemaking process influences the degree of contamination, and examine the associated toxicity in terms of the risk of human exposure from the consumption of contaminated wines
The hazard quotient, proposed by US Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA), is a tool used to calculate the carcinogenic risk of ingesting a compound that is harmful to health and can represent human exposure through the consumption of such compounds in food and beverages

Summary

Introduction

(OTs)are are aa group group of of mycotoxins mycotoxinsproduced producedby bydifferent differentPenicillium. Aspergillus molds that contaminate crops in the field [1] These toxins are derivatives of of an an isocoumarin moiety linked phenylalanine amide bond A ethyl ester (OTC), ochratoxin B ethyl ester (EtOTB), ochratoxin α (OTα, an isocoumarin derivative of OTA) ochratoxin β (OTβ, a dechlorinated analog of OTα), OTα methyl ester, OTA ethyl amide, and OTA glucose ester [9,10,11] They are not regulated in wine, their presence is undoubtedly a risk to human health. The contamination of wines with ochratoxins should raise a tremendous public health alert worldwide for frequent drinkers, since these toxins can cause acute to chronic poisoning. Considering the risk of contamination by ochratoxins and the long-term health problems they can cause, this review aims to analyze the presence of ochratoxins in wines reported in the last 10 years, explore how the winemaking process influences the degree of contamination, and examine the associated toxicity in terms of the risk of human exposure from the consumption of contaminated wines

Ochratoxin A

Other Ochratoxins

OTA Toxicity and Biotransformation

Risk of Exposure to Ochratoxins through the Consumption of Contaminated Wines

Findings

Conclusions