Abstract
The presence and accumulation of plastic and microplastic (MP) debris in the natural environment is of increasing concern and has become the focus of attention for many researchers. Plastic debris is a prolific, long-lived pollutant that is highly resistant to environmental degradation, readily adheres hydrophobic persistent organic pollutants and is linked to morbidity and mortality in numerous aquatic organisms. The prevalence of MPs within the natural environment is a symptom of continuous and rapid growth in synthetic plastic production and mismanagement of plastic waste. Many terrestrial and marine-based processes, including domestic and industrial drainage, maritime activities agricultural runoff and wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) effluent, contribute to MP pollution in aquatic environments. MPs have been identified in food consumed by human and in air samples, and exposure to MPs via ingestion or inhalation could lead to adverse human health effects. Regulations in many countries have already been established or will soon be implemented to reduce MPs in aquatic environments. This review focuses on the occurrence, sources, and transport of MPs in terrestrial and aquatic environments to highlight potential human health effects, and applicable regulations to mitigate impacts of MPs. This study also highlights the importance of personality traits and cognitive ability in reducing the entry of MPs into the environment.
Highlights
Since development of the first synthetic resin at the beginning of the 20th century, plastics have become indispensable in society (Cole et al 2011; Sivan 2011)
Key concerns include: (a) plastic is a non renewable resource; (b) persistent organic pollutants (POPs) are sorbed very efficiently to plastics; (c) durability of plastic makes it highly resistant to degradation; (d) plastic debris is vulnerable to fragmentation; (e) plastic debris can cause injury and death of marine birds, mammals, fish and reptiles towing to plastic entanglement and ingestion (Lopez Lozano and Mouat 2009; Trevail et al 2015; Van Franeker et al 2011; Wright et al 2013); and (f) plastic debris can damage maritime equipment (Phuong et al 2016)
Results showed the MPs were absent in 16 brands from 20 analyzed brands of canned sardines and sprats, and between 1 and 3 plastic particles per brand were found in the rest
Summary
Since development of the first synthetic resin at the beginning of the 20th century, plastics have become indispensable in society (Cole et al 2011; Sivan 2011). 4. MP regulations Despite the global attention to plastic pollution and its environmental effects in recent years, there are currently no regulations established yet to manage impacts of secondary MPs. In contrast, many regions have established or implemented regulations to ban production and use of primary MPs, including microbeads, which could reduce MPs entering the aquatic environment (Beat the Microbead 2016; CEPA (Canadian Environmental Protection Act) 2016; Legislative Assembly of Ontario 2015; Pettipas et al 2016; United States Congress 2015; United Kingdom Department for Environment Food and Rural Affairs 2016), as well as bans or limits on use of single-use macroplastics (e.g. drinks bottles, carrier bags). Educational intervention (e.g., marine litter education) to children boosts their awareness, perceptions of consequences and self-reported action (Hartley et al 2015)
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