Abstract
This study investigated the occurrence of disinfection by-products (DBPs) (trihalomethanes (THMs), haloacetic acids (HAAs), halonitriles (HANs), halonitromethane (TCNM) and haloketones (HKs)) in different type of swimming pools in the area of Thessaloniki, northern Greece by employing the EPA methods 551.1 and 552.3. Moreover, general water quality parameters (pH, residual chlorine, dissolved organic carbon, UV254 absorption, total nitrogen, alkalinity and conductivity) were also measured. The concentrations of DBPs showed great variability among swimming pools as well as within the same pool between sampling campaigns. HAAs exhibited the highest concentrations followed by THMs, HANs, TCNM and HKs. Exposure doses for four age groups (3–<6 y, 6–<11 y, 11–<16 y and adults) were calculated. Route-specific exposures varied among DBPs groups. Inhalation was the dominant exposure route to THMs and TCNM (up to 92–95%). Ingestion and dermal absorption were the main exposure routes to HAAs (40–82% and 18–59%, respectively), depending on the age of swimmers. HANs contributed up to 75% to the calculated cytotoxicity of pool water. Hazard indices for different exposure routes were <1, suggesting non-carcinogenic risk. Inhalation posed the higher carcinogenic risk for THMs, whereas risk via oral and dermal routes was low. Ingestion and dermal contact posed the higher risk for HAAs. Risk management strategies that minimise DBPs exposure without compromising disinfection efficiency in swimming pools are necessary.
Highlights
Disinfection is a necessary water treatment process used in swimming pools to inactivate pathogens and prevent outbreaks of infectious diseases
This extrapolation might introduce a level of uncertainty due to differences on route-specific rate and magnitude of absorption, (b) air concentrations in the natatorium calculated through different approaches, in case that are not measured, differ by several orders of magnitude and introduce a relevant uncertainty and, (c) other disinfection by-products (DBPs) occurred in swimming pools that may significantly contribute to realistic DBPs-related risks [34,47]
This study investigated the occurrence of various disinfection by-products, DBPs (THMs, haloacetic acids (HAAs), HANs, TCNM and HKs) in different types of swimming pools in the area of Thessaloniki during the period July 2019–February 2020
Summary
Disinfection is a necessary water treatment process used in swimming pools to inactivate pathogens and prevent outbreaks of infectious diseases. Chlorine is the most common disinfectant for this purpose. This practice results in the formation of undesirable disinfection by-products (DBPs) from the reaction of chlorine with the organic matter present in filling waters (natural organic matter) and released from swimmers (human body fluids, sweat, sebum, skin particles, personal care products etc). Differences in operation conditions and disinfection methods affect the levels and speciation of the DBPs in swimming pools [1,2,3]. Concerns have been raised regarding potential negative effects on human health from water disinfectants used in swimming pools. The exposure to DBPs through different intake routes (inhalation, dermal absorption, water ingestion) may pose health risk for swimmers and pool staff. Many studies reported the occurrence of commonly investigated DBPs (mainly trihalomethanes and haloacetic acids) in swimming pools, there are only a few studies that investigated emerging DBP classes, such as nitrogenous DBPs (halonitromethanes, haloacetonitriles etc.)
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