Occurrence, Multidrug Resistance, and Multilocus Sequence Typing of Extended-Spectrum Beta-Lactamase/AmpC-Producing Escherichia coli from Farmed Eggs.

The objective of the present study is to estimate and compare the costs and returns in deep litter and cage systems of poultry rearing and also to identify the constraints, which affect the poultry production in India. Results of this study reveal that the fixed investment per farm is found to be more on cage system of rearing for all the three size groups. In both systems, the feed cost decrease gradually when the stock size increases except in medium size group in deep litter system and accounts for more than 84% of the total cost of production irrespective of stock size and system of rearing. The cost of production per bird reveal that the cost of permanent and family labor and electricity increase with increase in stock size in case of deep litter system whereas in cage system, it is found to decrease with increase in flock size. The cage system appears to be more efficient than the deep litter system in producing eggs and the feed efficiency increases with decrease in stock size in both the system of rearing. Further, the net returns per farm increase as the size of the farm increases in both the systems and the returns per farm is, however, higher in cage system than in deep litter system in all the three groups. The major constraints in egg production are identified and ranked by using Garrett's Ranking Technique and are in the order of high cost of feed, high cost of medicine and vaccine, supply of poor quality feed and feed ingredients, non remunerative price for eggs, lack of disease control facilities and higher rate of electricity tariff.

A comparative cross-sectional study was conducted on farmed eggs (n: 480) and environmental samples (n: 72; feed, water, and poultry droppings) from twenty-four deep litter and caged poultry layer farms across Punjab, India. The study noted a significantly higher occurrence of Staphylococcus aureus (31.67%; 95% CI 26.37-36.96%) and methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) (32.5%, 95% CI 23-43.3%) in deep litter farms (P < 0.05). The logistic regression analysis revealed while the odds of presumptive MRSA from egg isolates were high (Odds ratio: 2.714; 95% CI 1.172, 6.284) in deep litter, conversely, resistance against ceftriaxone (0.279; 95% CI 0.129, 0.605), tetracycline (0.227; 95% CI 0.104, 0.497), and erythromycin (0.46; 95% CI 0.218, 0.973) was low. The multi-drug resistance was high and nearly equal; 68.53%, and 72.22% in deep litter and cage systems respectively. Additionally, around 89.65% and 77.7% of MRSA from deep litter and cage systems had multiple antibiotic resistance index > 0.2 respectively. Among the resistance genes under study, the odds of mecA and tetL were 2.417 and 8.029 times higher in deep litter. The hierarchical clustering of MRSA isolates based on the antibiogram profile depicted the formation of a large number of cluster solutions with a mix of isolates from both systems. The SCCmec typing revealed a predominance of type V in both the systems (34.4%; deep litter and 33.3%; cage), with a scarce distribution of other types and subtypes viz., deep litter: types III; 13.7%, IVc; 6.8%, II; 6.8%, IVa, and IVb; 3.4% and cage system: types III and IVc; 11.1%. To, the best of our knowledge current study is the first-ever comprehensive study on comparative occurrence, AMR profile, molecular characterization, and typing of MRSA from farmed eggs and environment from India.

This study aimed to evaluate the herbal calcium supplements in commercial layers under cage and deep litter systems of rearing. A total of 240 White Leghorn layers (Bovans) were distributed randomly into 4 different treatments with 4 replicates having 15 birds in each replicate. The basal diet, which consisted of corn and soybean meal, was prepared as a control and fed to birds under cage (T1) and deep litter (T3) system. The other experimental diets (T2 &amp; T4) were prepared by supplementing herbal calcium supplement (Ayucal D @ 9 g/60 birds/day, Ayurvet Limited, India) as a top-up supplement by mixing uniformly in the basal diet for 10 days in every month of the experimental period and fed to birds under cage (T2) and deep litter system (T4). Remaining 20 days every month, the birds in T2 and T4were fed with a basal diet without herbal supplement Ayucal D supplementation and systems of rearing did not influence the nutrient utilisation of dry matter, crude protein, ether extract, total ash, metabolisable energy, bone strength and serum mineral concentration. However, the utilisation of calcium and phosphorus improved significantly. The leg health measure scores also significantly improved (P&lt;0.001) in Ayucal D-supplemented birds. Thus, overall results indicated that supplementation of Ayucal D to layer birds reared under cage and deep litter systems improved the nutrient utilisation of dietary calcium and phosphorus without affecting the utilisation of proximate nutrients and energy and thereby improved leg health. Keywords: Ayucal-D, bone strength, cage, deep litter, layers, nutrients

This study assessed the bacterial quality of drinking water for layer chicken managed under battery cage (BC) and deep litter (DL) systems in Sokoto Metropolis. A total of 18 samples were collected from the two systems. Serial dilution, spread plate innoculation, colony count, subculturing, gram staining and biochemical characterization were carried out according to standard methods .The mean count concentrations in BC (1.4×10 6 , 7.2×10 6 and 3.4×10 6 ) were relatively higher than those recorded in DL (1.57×10 7 ,4.52×10 7 , and 1.2×10 6 ) .The mean count (CFU/ml)for BC was 72.11111 and that of DL was 207.4444.The bacteria determined in BC were: : Bacillus species, Micrococcus varians , Corynebacterium xerosis and Lactobacillus fermenti ; whereas, those determined in DL were Micrococcus varians , Lactobacillus fermenti , E. coli , and Corynebacterium xerosis ; thus E.coli was only recorded in DC, but the rest were found in both BC and DL. In BC, the most frequent was Corynebacterium xerosis , then Micrococcus varians , and lastly Bacillus species and Lactobacillus fermenti ; whereas, in DL Corynebacterium xerosis was also most frequent, then Micrococcus varians ,then the rests. Thus, C. xerosis was the most overall prevalent, then Micrococcus varians , then the rests. This work depicted that water used in the BC and DL systems surveyed contains a higher and diverse concentration of bacteria .This portend of contamination and unsanitary outcome is capable of harming the health, production, and ultimately the public health. More water treatment innovative methods should be use, regular and proper cleaning of farm and drinkers are needed and farmers need to be educated. Keywords: water quality, Corynebacterium xerosis , Lactobacillus fermenti , S okoto metropolis , Bacillus species

This study was a comparative economic analysis of poultry egg production under different production systems in Oyo State, Nigeria. Primary data were collected with the aid of a structured questionnaire from 134 (75 battery cage and 59 deep litter systems) poultry farmers through a multistage sampling procedure in three agricultural zones of the State. Descriptive statistics, budgetary techniques, Data Envelopment Analysis (DEA), Tobit regression and student-t test methods were used to analyze the data. Results showed that the mean ages of the farmers were 44 and 40years for battery cage and deep litter systems respectively, while 97.3% and 97.0% of battery cage and deep litter system users had formal education respectively. Also, 78.9% and 88.1%; 65.3% and 57.6%; 25.3% and 28.8% of battery cage and deep litter users were male, members of cooperative society and had extension contacts respectively while 57.3% and 76.3%; 86.7 and 84.8% of battery cage and deep litter users used Isah Brown breed and commercial feed respectively. The Net Farm Incomes (NFI) per bird for battery cage system were ₦2,052.17; ₦1,282.86 and ₦1,605.28 while that of deep litter system were ₦1,897.84; ₦1,467.46 and ₦1,236.06 for small, medium and large scale farmers respectively. DEA revealed that the mean technical efficiencies for battery cage and deep litter systems were 0.892 and 0.912. Tobit regression revealed that the determinants of technical efficiency of farmers using battery cage system were extension visits (p<0.01); gender (p<0.01); farmers’ years of education (p<0.05) and membership of cooperative society (p<0.05). Also, the efficiency of farmers using deep litter system was influenced by breed of bird (p<0.01); feed type (p<0.01) and gender (p<0.01). This study concluded that there is no efficiency loss in the choice of either of the systems, except that expansion may be restricted in deep liter system if land constraints exist. The study recommended that farmers who wish to invest in poultry egg production are at liberty to choose either of the systems depending on the intended scale of production.

The study was centered on the comparative analysis of battery cage and deep litter poultry housing systems in Abia state, Nigeria. The study specifically examined the factors influencing the choice of poultry housing system in the study area; estimated the profitability of battery cage and deep litter system in the area; analyzed the determinants of profit in battery cage and deep litter systems respectively; and examined the constraints faced by poultry farmers in the area. Primary data source was used for the study. Multi-stage sampling technique was used in the selection of 140 respondents. Descriptive statistics like frequency, tables, charts, etc; profitability index (cost and returns analysis) and multiple regression were the tools of analysis. From the cost and return analysis, it was observed that both housing systems are profitable. The t test result showed that housing system adopted for poultry farms have an effect on the profit. However, it was observed that farmers using deep litter system make more profit when compared to battery cage housing system. It was observed that battery cage system is more capital intensive when compared to deep litter system and this predisposes most famers to favour deep litter housing system to battery cage system. Sex, marital status, education, mortality rate, cost of production, farm size, experience and access to credit were significant variables having varying effects on the profit of battery cage users while sex, household size, education, mortality, cost of production, farm size, experience were the significant variables influencing the returns of deep litter users in the study area. High cost of feeds, inadequate amenities, high interest rates, quality of stock etc. where the major constraints of poultry production in the area. The study recommends that governments should subsidize the cost of feeds to make it affordable for farmers in the study area

Background and Objective: The importance of the poultry industry to the national economy cannot be overemphasized. Approximately 10% of the Nigerian population is engaged in poultry production, mostly on subsistence and small or medium-sized farms. However, the output level still remains low compared to the input. The aim of this study was to examine the technical efficiency of the battery cage and deep litter systems of poultry production in Nigeria. Materials and Methods: A multi-stage sampling technique was used to select 120 battery cage farmers and 120 deep litter farmers. A well-structured questionnaire was used to collect information on the farmers and the farm characteristics. The data collected were analysed using descriptive and inferential statistics. Results: The budgetary analysis showed that the net profit for one bird for the battery cage farmer stood at x587, whereas that of the deep litter farmer was x635. Stochastic frontier modelling showed a higher inefficiency in the deep litter system of poultry production compared with the battery cage system. The efficiencies were 79 and 60% for the battery cage and deep litter farms, respectively. Additionally, labour and flock size contributed to the inefficiencies of both the battery and deep systems of poultry production. The Chow test (Fcal = 0.45 and Ftab = 2.3) showed that there was no structural difference in the production of the battery cage and deep litter systems in the study area. Conclusion: The results show that even though the two systems are profitable but the battery cage system is more profitable than the deep litter system. Key word: Battery cage, chow test, deep litter, economic analysis, poultry production, stochastic production frontier

This study investigated the cost implications of raising broilers under the battery cage and deep litter system of poultry production. The data used in the study were obtained from a cross-sectional survey of broiler farmers in Edo State from October– December, 2013. A multi-stage sampling process was used to select the 211 respondents for this study. The data collected were analyzed using descriptive statistics and profitability ratios. The study showed that the mean age of farmers that adopted the battery cage system was 48 years and 46 years for the farmers that used deep litter system. The Gross Margin analysis gave a value of ₦ 2,422.24 and a Net Farm Income (NFI) of ₦ 2,412.40 per bird for battery cage system while the deep litter system had a gross margin of ₦ 1,601.77 and NFI of ₦ 1,593.80 per bird. The profitability ratios showed Rate of Return on Investment (RRI) of about 92%, Return on Labour (RL) of ₦ 18.03, Return on Feed (RF)of ₦ 144.22 and Return Per Naira Invested (RNI) of ₦ 0.91 for the battery cage system as against RRI (71%), RL ( ₦ 30.28), RF ( ₦ 117.95) and RNI ( ₦ 0.71) for the deep litter system. This shows that both systems were profitable and viable in the study area. It was therefore concluded that farmers should be enlightened on the relative profitability/viability of the battery cage system of broiler production over the deep litter system in the study area, as a guide to future investment in the enterprise. Keywords: Battery cage, Cost, Deep litter, Net Farm Income, Viability

Battery cage systems for housing laying hens are being replaced by alternative systems including the deep litter system. At the same time, the substitution of meat and bone meal by vegetable matter in poultry feed mixtures is sought in the nutrition of laying hens. In the experiment, we compared the performance of laying hens of the ISA BROWN hybrid in both the cage system and the deep litter system, on a diet with the meat and bone meal content replaced by vegetable feeds (based on lupin). In the first group, 36 laying hens were kept in the deep litter system; in the second group, 36 laying hens were kept in cages. Over the period of nine months, the number of eggs laid, their weight, shell quality, the clinical state of the laying hens and incidence of their mortality were monitored daily. We found that in the cage system a higher number of eggs was obtained; a lower mean egg weight (p &lt; 0.01); a higher number of eggs per hen per day (p &lt; 0.01); a higher egg mass weight per hen per day (p &lt; 0.01). There was a higher number of cracked eggs of the total number of eggs laid (p &lt; 0.01), the number of membranous eggs of the total number of eggs laid did not differ (p &gt; 0.05), and the number of laying hens which died was lower (p &lt; 0.05) in comparison with the deep litter system. The results of the experiment demonstrate that, with the substitution of meat and bone meal by vegetable matter in the feed mixtures for laying hens, there are differences between the performance of laying hens from the deep litter system as compared to the laying hens from the cage system. The deep litter system better meets the requirements for the welfare of laying hens; however, it provides a lower yield.

At present the laying hen rearing is transformed into alternative housing systems which include a deep litter system. As for the poultry nutrition, the replacement of animal protein with vegetable protein in poultry feed is applied. Therefore, in an experiment we evaluated the quality of eggs from laying hens in the cage system as compared to the deep litter system with vegetable protein substituted for animal protein in their feed. 72 ISA Brown laying hens were placed into the experiment. 36 laying hens were kept in the deep litter system and 36 laying hens were kept in conventional cages for laying hens. For the period of 9 months, 36 eggs from the group in the deep litter system were examined, always at intervals of five weeks (i.e. 8 &amp;times; 36 eggs) and so were 36 eggs from the group in the cage system (i.e. 8 &amp;times; 36 eggs). We found out that in the deep litter system the mean egg weight was higher (P &amp;lt; 0.01), shell weight was lower (P &amp;lt; 0.01), egg albumen was higher (P &amp;lt; 0.01), yolk weight did not differ (P &amp;gt; 0.05), yolk cholesterol was higher (P &amp;lt; 0.01), yolk colour was darker (P &amp;lt; 0.05), shell strength did not differ (P &amp;gt; 0.05), all in comparison with the cage system of laying hen keeping. The results of the experiment show that where vegetable protein was substituted for animal protein in the nutrition of laying hens, there were differences in the quality of eggs from laying hens kept in the deep litter system and eggs from laying hens kept in the cage system. &amp;nbsp;

SE—Structures and Environment: Deep Litter Systems for Beef Cattle housed in Uninsulated Barns, Part 1: Height Increase, Carrying Capacity and Specific Counter-pressure of Aeration of Deep Litter

Water troughs from deep litter and caged chicken water troughs (drinkers) fixed to each of the different 3-tier cages containing layer chickens in Farms A, B and C were subjected to a 7-day study which involved the monitoring of poultry farm hygiene. Drinkers were washed before filling with water on Day 1. For Days 3, 5 and 7 water was served without prior washing. The occurrence and characterization of the bacteria isolates were investigated and data obtained were analyzed and compared. For the bacterial count on Day 1, for layer chickens on cage system, no significant differences (p > 0.05) among the farms and between the farms tier interactions. On Day 3, no significant difference (p > 0.05) among the parameters. On Day 5, there was significant difference (p<0.05) among the farms and on Day 7, there was high significant difference (p < 0.01) among the farms. On Days 5 and 7, there were no significant differences (p>0.05) among the tiers nor between the interactions of the farms and tiers. The bacterial count in water troughs of layer chickens in deep litter system, on Day 1, had no significant differences (p > 0.05) between the farms, water troughs and their interactions. On Day 3, no significant difference (p > 0.05) among the parameters. On Days 5 and 7, there were significant difference (p<0.05) and a high significant difference (p < 0.01) between the farms respectively. On Days 5 and 7, no significant differences between the water troughs and between the interaction of the farms and the water troughs. Farm A isolates contained Staphylococcus aureus, Proteus vulgaris, Streptococcus faecalis, Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus epidermis, Klebsiella sp., Salmonella sp., Bacillus subtilis, Lactobacillus salivarius and Corynebacterium sp. Farm B had Staphylococcus aureus, S. epidermis, Bacillus subtilis, Corynebacterium sp., Escherichia coli, Streptococcus faecalis and Klebsiella sp. while for Farm C, apart from the prevalent bacteria isolates obtained in Farms A and B, additional 2 bacterial isolates, Lactobacillus salivarius and Pseudomonas aeuriginosa were found. In conclusion, water troughs when cleaned on daily basis carry minimum bacterial load. Those left for 3, 5 and 7 days uncleaned had progressively high bacterial loads, suggesting that the flock of birds and the consumers of the eggs and meat from the chickens are at risk of bacterial infection unless strict farm hygiene is ensured through regular monitoring.

A total of ninety-six (96) weaner rabbits (Chinchilla and New Zealand White crossbred) were use for this study and were divided into forty-eight (48) per generation. These fortyeight weaner rabbits were further divided into three replicates of four males (12) and four females each (12) housed in cage (24) and deep litter system (24).This experiment was carried out for two generations to determine the effect of generation interval, housing systems and sex on the haematological and serum profile of rabbits. Data obtained were analyzed using Analysis of Variance test in a 2x2x2 factorial arrangement. The study showed that Packed cell volume (PCV), red blood cells (RBC) and haemoglobin (HB) were not significant in both generations while higher significant(p&lt;0.05) values of albumin were observed in first generation and white blood cells (WBC), globulin, aspartate amino transferase (AST) and alanine amino transferase (ALT) were significantly higher in the second generation. Sex had no significant (p&gt;0.05) effect on most of the biochemical parameters studied except for RBC and glucose which had 4.12 x1012/L and 69.23 mg/dl, for males and 3. 8 x1012/L and 78.78mg/dl for females, respectively in the second generation. In addition, the AST and ALT values were also higher in the females than in the males in the first generation but with no significant (p&gt;0.05) difference. Housing system result showed that WBC (6.29 x109/L) and glucose (78.35 mg/dl) of rabbits were significantly (p&lt;0.05) increased in the cage and deep litter system, respectively in the first generation while total serum protein, albumin and globulin were significantly (p&lt;0.05) higher in rabbits housed in the deep litter system in the second generation. Higher values were recorded for AST and ALT in the deep litter system than the cage system in both generations except that the values of ALT were within the same range for both housing systems in the second generation. This study clearly indicated that both housing systems support rabbit production without any negative influence on the immune status of the rabbit.

A questionnaire-based study of chicken production system with on-farm biosecurity practices was carried out in commercial poultry farms located in Jos, Nigeria. Commercial and semicommercial farms had 75.3% and 24.5% of 95,393 birds on 80 farms, respectively. Farms using deep litter and battery cage systems were 69 (86.3%) and 10 (12.5%), respectively. In our biosecurity scoring system, a correct practice of each indicator of an event scored 1.00 and biosecurity score (BS) of each farm was the average of the scores of biosecurity indicators for the farm, giving BS of zero and 1.00 as absence of biosecurity and optimal biosecurity, respectively. Semicommercial farms had higher BS than commercial farms. The flock size did not significantly (p > 0.05) affect the mean BS. Disease outbreaks correlated (r = −0.97) with BS, showing a tendency of reduction of disease outbreaks with increasing BS. Outbreaks were significantly (p < 0.05) associated with deep litter system. In conclusion, the chicken production system requires increased drive for excellent biosecurity practices and weak points in the biosecurity could be ameliorated by extension of information to farmers in order to support expansion of chicken production with robust biosecurity measures that drastically reduce risk of disease outbreak.

This experiment was conducted to determine the effect of sex, Polydactylism and rearing system on carcass parameters of Fulani-ecotype chickens. Thirty chickens (15 males and 15 females) were randomly selected at 16 weeks old for carcass evaluation from population of the intensively (deep litter and cage system of management) kept Fulani eco-type chicken and were used for determining carcass characteristics such as Live weight, dressed weight, eviscerated weight, breast weight, Proventriculus weight, gizzard weight, liver weight, lung weight, spleen weight, bile weight, pancreas weight, heart weight, wing weight, shank weight, drumstick weight, thigh weight, head weight, neck weight, back weight. Data generated from the carcass parameters were subjected to least squares means using SAS 9.2 version 2008. Result showed that sex and polydactyly were significantly different (p&lt;0.05) on all the carcass parameters measured except the organs. Birds kept in deep litter system had higher least squares means values than ones in cage system of management. This study revealed the effect of sex, polydactylism and rearing system on various carcass characteristics of Fulani ecotype chickens.