O processo de conscientização na sala de aula de língua espanhola

Littlewood’s early stance on the use of students’ first language (L1) in the foreign language (L2) classroom was that maximum use of the target language (TL) enhances language acquisition. He suggested that this precept has been pervasive in every communicatively-oriented language teaching method and has also been widely accepted in official curricula in a range of contexts due to an understanding that TL use should be normative in classroom interactions. A strong rationale for advocating this ‘monolingual principle’ has been that, for many students, the L2 classroom provides the only opportunity to be exposed to the TL. Littlewood and Yu (2011. First language and target language in the foreign language classroom. Language Teaching 44, no. 1: 64–77) recognised, however, that teachers and students do make use of students’ L1 in L2 classrooms and suggested several ways in which teachers might do this legitimately. Furthermore, Littlewood (e.g. 2014. Communication-oriented language teaching: where are we now? Where do we go from here? Language Teaching 47, no. 3: 349–362) conceded that exclusive TL use has become subject to active questioning in recent years. The phenomenon of translanguaging takes arguments that support L1 use beyond Littlewood’s earlier suggestions. There are also implications for TBLT where extensive L2/TL use is the default position but where translanguaging practices are not necessarily at odds with the central task construct. This paper explores translanguaging in the contexts of TBLT and the monolingual principle.

The study of language acquisition and instruction is not new to academics, but it never fails to excite linguists and teachers. The goal of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) is to help students develop their communication skills so that they can effectively communicate in a target language. Since its start in the 1970s, when the need for language learners to improve their communication skills was rising, this approach has received worldwide reputation. But since many educators still reject this method, many worries remain. According to Chomsky (1957), the four main aspects of language acquisition lexis, syntax, phonology, and morphology are focused on linguistic competence. Hymes (1971) argues that pragmatic, sociolinguistic, semantic, and grammatical considerations are more important. When it comes to teaching second languages, the theories put forward by researchers, have been game-changers for communicative language instruction. The communicative language teaching (CLT) technique places an emphasis on students' active participation in second language classroom activities and provides more opportunities for students to improve their communication skills compared to the grammar-translation method. Other traditional methods of instruction do not typically use this component. In the context of ESL instruction, this article delves deeply into the ideas and methods of Communicative Language Teaching (CLT). In particular, it compares and contrasts conventional methods of instruction with Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) and gives a brief summary of its advantages and disadvantages. In addition, the article delves into the latest advancements in CLT and the difficulties encountered while applying CLT in an academic environment. After that, the post helps educators understand Communicative Language Teaching (CLT) better. 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The idea of teaching a target language via a monolingual medium of instruction in the classroom has long predominated in the pedagogical context. In Saudi Arabia, excluding the students’ mother tongue (Arabic) in the foreign language classroom has been seen as a tool that accelerates the acquisition of the target language (English). This is widely viewed as the most practical and effective method of language learning, especially in the Gulf region, where English is a foreign language employed in the fields of economics and business. The recent academic argument that exploiting the students’ linguistic repertoire, including the mother tongue, in the target language classroom boosts and fosters the students’ learning cycle is still encountering huge resistance, especially among second/foreign language teachers. To explore this dispute from the perspective of English as a foreign language (EFL) teachers in intermediate and secondary schools, a case study was conducted with 34 teachers in the Qassim region, Saudi Arabia, through questionnaires and a focus group interview. The study found that most teachers believe that the policy of using the target language (English) only is the most effective method of language learning. They employed the students’ mother tongue (Arabic) on an ad hoc basis to ensure complete comprehension, organize classroom tasks or convey personal remarks. In addition, the study revealed that teachers’ understanding of plurilingualism was unclear and limited to the verbal use of two languages, and that EFL teachers need more clarification on its application in the classroom.

Reviewed by: Second language acquisition processes in the classroom: Learning Japanese by Amy Snyder Ohta Junko Hondo Second language acquisition processes in the classroom: Learning Japanese. By Amy Snyder Ohta. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum, 2001. Pp. 298. ISBN: 0805838007. $79.95. It has been more than a half-century since the concept of the ‘zone of proximal development’ (ZPD) was first introduced by Lev Vygotsky. In keeping with current movements in the field of second language acquisition (SLA), Amy Snyder Ohta situates classroom interaction within a sociocultural frame-work. Modifying the ZPD slightly from Vygotsky’s original model, she includes peer interlocutors as providers of cognitive apprenticeship. Consistent with other qualitative research in the field of SLA, she regards these peer interlocutors as not necessarily needing to be ‘more advanced’ than their fellow students in order to respond to the needs of second language (L2) learners in the classrooms. ‘Even true peers have different’ capabilities, and it is the nature of diverse interactive roles that enables peers to provide assistance. Applying sociocognitive perspectives, O also sheds light on the role of private speech in the course of the language acquisition for L2 learners. She discusses the function of private speech both from analytical perspectives and from an empirical view in the frame of foreign language (FL) classrooms. The author provides abundant evidence from classroom data to develop these theoretical viewpoints. The data regarding benefits from peer interactive tasks is classified into such categories as general development, grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, and interactional style. Her evidence indicates the presence of private speech in various forms in the FL classrooms, illustrated in a manner accessible to even a non-Japanese-speaking audience. One of the traditional focal points in SLA, feedback, is also examined. The author provides a tangible classification to categorize the rather broad umbrella term ‘corrective feedback’. According to her study, different types of feedback provide different opportunities for learners. Well-defined, sequential stages of listener response are provided although the number of subjects in the study is rather small (a total of four). The study indicates the existence of the acknowledgment of back-channeling in the beginning stages of learning FL and the individuality of output in such utterances. The book addresses a wide range of topics from the use of the first language (L1) and L2 in peer interaction to related pedagogical matters. The data on the use of L1 in the interaction is naturally connected to the topic of instructional design. The analysis of this data leads to a discussion regarding task design and task implementation. In this section, O puts the focus on the teacher as the agent with the potential to orchestrate the learning experience through task design and task allocations. The book presents a thorough analysis of classroom interaction data and provides resources for L2 researchers, FL field practitioners, and, in particular, teachers of Japanese. Junko Hondo Lancaster University Copyright © 2003 Linguistic Society of America

The purpose of the current study was to investigate students’ attitude towards oral interaction in EFL classroom. For the study, a post positivist paradigm was adopted because the post positivist assumptions have represented the traditional form of research, and these assumptions hold true more for quantitative research than qualitative research. Besides, a descriptive case study design and a quantitative research approach were employed to achieve the research objective. The participants of the study were 64 second year students in the Faculty of Social Sciences and Humanities (FSSH), Gambella University who were selected through simple random sampling technique in the year 2023. The data were collected through close ended questionnaire. A close ended questionnaire was used to collect the data about the students’ attitude towards oral interaction in EFL classroom. In this study, a quantitative method of data analysis was employed by using SPSS 24. The data were analyzed utilizing descriptive statistics like frequencies, percentages and mean scores. The data about the students’ attitude were analyzed in terms of the three basic components of attitude. They were the cognitive, affective and behavioral components. Regarding the cognitive component of their attitude about the benefits of oral interaction, the students had little understanding about the merit of oral interaction. Pertaining to the affective component of their attitude concerning their own preferences to employ oral interaction in a classroom, the students did not prefer using oral interaction in EFL classroom. With regard to the behavioral component of their attitude towards oral interaction, the students were not enthusiastic to use oral interaction in classrooms in enhancing their oral interaction skill. Therefore, the findings the study revealed that the students had negative attitude towards oral interaction in EFL classrooms.

Reviewed by: Bringing Linguistics into the Spanish Language Classroom by Judy Hochberg Carlos Benavides Hochberg, Judy. Bringing Linguistics into the Spanish Language Classroom. Routledge, 2021. Pp. 164. ISBN 978-0-367-11196-0. There is a scarcity of books in the market that incorporate topics in linguistics into the teaching of languages. Bringing Linguistics into the Spanish Language Classroom comes to fill this void. This book enables teachers to integrate the most interesting and important findings of Hispanic linguistics into their Spanish language classes. For each topic covered, teachers will find classroom-ready explanations and PowerPoint slides, as well as instructions and materials for in-class activities and take-home projects that will engage students. The book covers a wide variety of topics, including the “mega-preposition” en, the trilled r, the order of acquisition of consonants, por and para, the personal a, and the evolution of the Spanish verb system. The book is organized around a wide-ranging set of five linguistics-based essential questions that serve to contextualize the material: 1) How is Spanish different from other languages?, 2) How is Spanish similar to other languages?, 3) What are the roots of Spanish?, 4) How does Spanish vary?, 5) How do people learn and use Spanish? These questions are general enough for teachers of other languages to [End Page 154] easily apply them to their own target languages. The book’s introduction presents these essential questions as they apply to Spanish, and its five chapters take them up in turn. Each chapter covers several topics relevant to one of the essential questions. Crucially, the chapters provide instructors with everything they need to incorporate these topics into their teaching. Each chapter consists of an introduction and one or two major topics, each with sub-topics. For example, Chapter 1, titled “How is Spanish different from other languages?” has two major topics (“Spanish in the world” and “Language features”), and one of the sub-topics is “The variety of Spanish past tenses.” The presentation of each sub-topic begins with a brief explanation in English (“Just the facts”), which is followed by an even briefer one in simple Spanish (“Teacher talk”). These explanations are followed by detailed instructions for creative and engaging in-class activities and take-home projects that motivate, teach, reinforce, or explore the topic. Each chapter closes with a list of references. Three appendices list all in-class activities, take-home projects and slides. Each chapter has a corresponding PowerPoint presentation with slides in Spanish that are available online. The slides are an excellent complement to the explanations and activities in the book. They provide facts, examples, explanations, descriptions, word lists, sample data from research studies, quotations, and a wide range of attention-grabbing visuals, including pictures, maps, tables, diagrams and links to other images as well as articles and videos. Other slides contain instructions and supporting materials for the in-class activities and take-home projects. The material in both the chapter explanations and the slides is sure to give both students and teachers a sense of marvel at learning some of these facts for the first time. The book is full of eye-opening details, backed up by references, that even experienced linguists may not be fully aware of. Readers may even find themselves going through the contents as when reading a book from cover to cover, while consulting the slides as they read along. Reading this book is an enjoyable experience. The field of Hispanic linguistics, which serves as the basis for the book, sheds light on aspects of Spanish from phonology to grammar, from history to dialectology, and from acquisition to adult cognition. While teachers may have had some training in Hispanic linguistics, they may not necessarily know how best to apply it. This book bridges the gap between theory and practice with specific explanations, activities, assignments, and PowerPoint slides that Spanish teachers can use in their own classrooms, enabling them to enrich their practice with insights from this allied field. The linguistic insights from the book can contribute to add intellectual interest to the classroom by connecting Spanish to other languages, to general linguistic principles, and to other fields such as history...

by Wolfgang Butzkamm and John A W Caldwell narr studienbucher 2009 978-3-8233-6492-4 The question of whether the mother tongue (MT) should be allowed in foreign language (FL) teaching has a long history in methodology debates. It has often been argued that the MT should definitely be avoided as it has a detrimental effect on learning a foreign language. Wolfgang Butzkamm and John Caldwell, however, claim not only that the monolingual approach has a weak basis in theory (even though they consider it a comprehensible reaction to the outcomes of the grammar-translation method), but also that it is better to work with the MT as a ‘natural tendency’ in FL teaching. To support their inclination towards a more relaxed approach to MT use, they scrutinise the reality of what they call the ‘MT taboo’, formulate a theory of MT use in the FL classroom and exemplify their insights through practical teaching techniques. It is the combination of theory and practice that makes the book much more than a ‘how to use the MT in FL teaching’ guide. The book discusses the importance of ‘immersion’ for MT acquisition, which means that a child is exposed to a huge amount of language, first learning chunks of language for communicative purposes and much later learning to break them down into parts. Since it is impractical to reproduce this natural process of acquiring a language in the FL classroom because of restrictions on the time available and, therefore, the exposure to the target language, FL teaching has to provide a focus on both meaning and structure. A prudent use of MT here helps make life easier for teachers and learners: ‘sandwiching’, mirroring and contrasting or literal translation, as the authors show, can be embedded in pattern drills in grammar teaching, dialogue work and drama. Moreover, it can increase the input of authentic material in the form of, for example, bilingual readers or DVDs with subtitles. A controlled use of the MT in the FL classroom also allows access to the understanding of language concepts that each learner has, even if those concepts are different in the MT and the FL. For example, when a teacher wants to show how continuous tenses are formed to learners whose own language has no continuous tenses, translation is a better way to express finer shades of meaning than an explanation or paraphrase in the target language. When the FL can be integrated into existing knowledge (ie the MT), the FL is ‘deforeignised’ and confidence is built up in the learner. In other words, the MT can be useful in promoting understanding of both form and meaning (which use of the FL alone often fails to do). Real understanding and control are key words in this book, and it is argued that fashionable methods of communicative language teaching which strictly exclude the MT often cause a learning situation in which students do not really understand what they are saying (but merely parrot phrases for no communicative reason) and, as a result, skills learning is impeded. The authors put their case convincingly, supporting their arguments with insights into the mechanisms used by children growing up bilingually: mixing their languages is a tactic that helps them learn. A separate chapter discusses ‘translation as a fifth skill’ with the help of some intellectually demanding (and therefore enjoyable) classroom activities, which, not least, help develop MT competence. The authors do admit that there are many situations where monolingualism is preferable, especially for classroom management, and claim that a controlled use of the MT should actually increase the time available for using the FL. The book is aimed particularly at student teachers, having study questions and tasks at the end of each chapter as well as many practical ideas, but I am sure that experienced teachers will also benefit from it. A benchmark in its field, the book is a must for all those who want to contribute to the debate over the pros and cons of using the MT in FL teaching.

This paper is motivated by growing, inexorable tensions between societal impetus to advance inclusive (non-binary) linguistic change across many Spanish-speaking communities, and the seemingly removed reality of the Spanish as a world language classroom. As a first step in reconciling these tensions and breaking free from apparent disciplinary inertia, we set out to map out extant scholarly literature around these complex matters. This critical appraisal is inspired by and rhizomatically anchored in queer and decolonial theories and guided by the urgent need for radical (re)alignment of our language teaching praxis to advocate for diversity and inclusion beyond violently oppressive, colonial, cis-heteropatriarchal norms. We begin by tracing the genealogy of inclusive language change in Spanish, and various attempts across Spanish speaking communities to broaden understandings of grammatical gender in ways that reflect inclusion of gender-diverse and gender nonconforming people. We then explore these linguistic changes in relation to the views of scholars and governing institutions, who may be seen as custodians of the language’s standardisation, stability, and correctness. In so doing, we consider critically the traditional reliance of the (Spanish) language teaching field on prescriptive norms that may ultimately impair teachers’ agentic responses to the realities of the classroom. Finally, we consider extant research across a variety of language teaching contexts and how this growing body of work may help inform renewed pedagogical praxis in the Spanish language classroom. We conclude by posing reflexive questions which we hope may prompt deeper,\ngenerative conversations around these matters.

Codeswitching (CS) between Maltese L1, English L2 and French as the target language (TL) in the French as a Foreign language (FFL) classroom in bilingual Malta is known to be a widespread reality, despite many French teachers’ claims that ideally lessons should be delivered in French only (Bezzina, Malta Rev Educ Res 10:277–296, 2016). The aim of this study is to evaluate, on the basis of corpus analysis, whether a wise use of previously known languages in the Foreign Language (FL) classroom can support the learning of the FL. Recordings of 16 FFL lessons delivered at two different learning levels by two teachers in Maltese secondary schools give indications as to the quantitative extent of the use of the L1, L2 and French L3 in these contexts. A qualitative analysis is carried out of the functions fulfilled in the teachers’ discourse by each of the three languages involved in the Maltese FFL context. The corpus analysis takes into account the structural manifestation of language juxtaposition. Interviews with the two teachers involved in the sampling exercise provide participants’ feedback on the analysis results. These results endorse literature attesting that L1 use in FL classrooms allows better content management and transmission, and helps establish a generally positive classroom ambiance. An interpretation is attempted of the social meaning of the observed switching in the context of the societal factors that mark language use in bilingual Malta, and the relationship between the macro- and micro-sociolinguistic dimensions of CS in the FL classroom is investigated.

This article reports on the findings of a study into the conditions which promote spontaneous learner talk in the target language in the modern foreign languages (MFL) classroom. A qualitative case study approach was adopted. French lessons, with school students aged 11–16 years old, were observed and analysed with the aim of identifying tools and techniques used by the teacher to foster spontaneous learner talk. A sample of learners was also interviewed. Thematic data analysis showed that the teachers employ two tools, referred to as target language management and context management. These comprise a variety of techniques which encourage spontaneous target language use and which help learners develop features of more dialogical conversation in their talk. The skilful teacher can combine these tools to create a ‘target language lifestyle’ where the target language is the natural means of communication in the classroom. The article argues that the development of spontaneous talk is an essential aspect of language learning and that teachers can stimulate originality and creativity in learners' language over time by careful planning of their own target language use.

The foreign language (FL) classroom can be an anxious environment where students feel uncomfortable having to communicate in a language in which they feel inadequate and have little practice. Low self-efficacy in skill-specific tasks is oftentimes the culprit. While there are a number of factors involved in successful language learning, this study examines how practice affects students’ sense of self-efficacy in the foreign language classroom. Using self-efficacy theory and design-based research, this qualitative study ‘flipped’ the classroom to focus on student input and output practice in class with grammar instruction video-recorded for homework. Data were recursively collected and analyzed from ten courses over three semesters. Classroom observations and reflection were triangulated with interviews and focus groups. Findings suggest that practice and self-efficacy in the FL classroom are indeed linked and that other factors such as peer familiarity and grading also play a role. The paper concludes with implications for language learning and teaching.

In the language classroom, the majority of learners regard the teacher as the principal source of knowledge. Learners rely on their teachers to provide them with the target language norms and to deal with their erroneous language utterances, through providing oral corrective feedback (OCF), during interaction within the language classroom. This study examined teachers’ and learners’ beliefs regarding the use of OCF, and explored the potential influence of OCF training on teachers’ beliefs and provision of OCF during teacher-student classroom interaction. Set in the tertiary level in Egypt, the current investigation examined intermediate EFL Egyptian students’ beliefs on OCF. At the onset of each of three data collection cycles, quantitative data were gathered using a questionnaire and qualitative data were compiled through focus groups.Five Egyptian English language teachers participated in the study, each teaching a class of first year students. Teachers’ beliefs and provision of OCF were examined prior to commencing the training process using one-to-one interviews and classroom observations. To investigate how OCF training influenced the five participants’ beliefs and teaching practices throughout the course of the intervention, qualitative data were collected using stimulated recalls, reflective e-journals, interviews and classroom observations. Learners’ beliefs were probed once again through post-intervention focus groups to examine any changes that could be linked to their teachers’ in-class provision of OCF throughout the 6-week training process.Analysis of the pre-intervention data demonstrated that both teachers and learners valued the role of OCF as an integral part of classroom interaction. However, the majority of students reiterated past classroom experiences citing lack of OCF or negative affective effects concerning how feedback was provided by their teachers. As for the five teachers, various degrees of incongruency between beliefs and OCF practices transpired through data analysis. In addition, there was an apparent lack of familiarity with OCF techniques, especially among the less experienced teachers. Data gathered throughout the intervention indicated a development in teachers’ knowledge and classroom practice, as regards the provision of the OCF, in relation to the training process. Analysis of the post-intervention focus groups indicated a more positive outlook on students’ part concerning their teachers’ approach to the correction of oral errors. The current investigation contributes to the growing field of OCF research by exploring both teachers’ and learners’ voice. Findings highlight the importance of focusing on the under researched area of OCF training and suggest potential benefits for incorporating this training component in mainstream teacher training and teacher development programmes.

Brave New Digital Classroom: Technology and Foreign Lan- guage Learning by Robert J. Blake. Washington DC: Georgetown University Press, 2008, vii-189 pp. Reviewed by Hye Ri Stephanie Kim University of California, Los Angeles Technology in the 21st century is not an option, but is a vital part of students’ lives. In the efforts to keep up with and take advantage of technological advance- ment, many schools integrate technology into their curriculum. However, one some- times comes across teaching practices that are technology-driven on one end of the extreme while on the other are teaching practices embodied by teachers’ resistance to use technology. Brave New Digital Classroom: Technology and Foreign Language Learning by Robert J. Blake aims to address all prevalent issues of instructional technology use and provides an overview of the most successful technologies used in language classrooms. In short, this small but highly resourceful book is the first of its kind to offer a comprehensive summary of technologies developed to assist language learning, with an emphasis on foreign language classrooms. It would serve as an excellent resource for language curriculum developers or instructors considering incorporating technologies into their program or teaching, as well as for graduate students who wish to get an overview on this topic. In the Preface and Chapter 1, Blake clearly sets the goal of the book and the theoretical basis from which his view on the incorporation of technology originates. The book is not intended to provide instructions on how to use technological tools. Instead, it offers an overview and evaluation of research and successfully used tools, thereby helping the readers to gain a broader understanding of them and encouraging the readers to conduct further research. The asset of the book lies in the fact that incorporation of technology is motivated based on Second Language Acquisition (SLA) theories, in particular the Interactionist Model, which states that social interaction is necessary for and facilitates L2 learning. It is an undeniable fact that living in a country where the target language is spoken provides students with abundant opportunities for input and social interaction. However, this is not a possible option for all learners. By presenting this gap between the ideal and the reality, the book guides the readers to the big question: Can technology then provide more opportunities for social interaction in classrooms? The book mainly focuses on answering this question. In addition, Blake emphasizes that the deci- sion to incorporate technology should be driven by principles of second language acquisition and should only be used in the service of language teaching and learning. By presenting such viewpoints in the beginning, Blake first sets up a rationale for and then justifies the use of technology in language classrooms. Issues in Applied Linguistics © 2009, Regents of the University of California ISSN 1050-4273 Vol. 17 No. 1, 67-69

The present study adopted a mixed-methods approach using a convergent parallel design to focus on the role that positive and negative emotions have in the Foreign Language (FL) classroom on the ontogenesis of positive flow. Participants were 1,044 FL learners from around the world. They provided quantitative and qualitative data on FL enjoyment (FLE), classroom anxiety (FLCA) and experience of flow via an on-line questionnaire (Dewaele, Jean-Marc & Peter D. MacIntyre. 2014. The two faces of Janus? Anxiety and enjoyment in the foreign language classroom. Studies in Second Language Learning and Teaching 4. 237–274). FLE was a significantly stronger predictor of frequency of flow experience than FLCA. Further statistical analyses revealed that flow experiences are typically self-centred, infrequent and short-lived at the start of the FL learning journey and when the perceived social standing in the group is low. They become an increasingly shared experience, more frequent, stronger and more sustained as learners reach a more advanced level in their FL. What starts as an occasional individual spark can turn into a true fire that extends to other group members. The findings are illustrated by participants’ reports on enjoyable episodes in the FL classroom in which some reported complete involvement in an individual or collective task, merging of action and awareness, joyful bonding with classmates, intense focus and joy, loss of self-consciousness, sense of time and place.

In Second Language (SL) classroom interactions, teachers and learners might face language mismatch due to learners’ limited target language (TL) linguistic resources. In such situations, communication strategies (CS) like approximation, non-verbal cues, code-switching, and others help to compensate for the breakdown. However, in most SL classes, teachers either do not use these strategies to ease interaction with their learners or use them without noticing their significance. Thus, it is questionable whether SL teachers are cognizant of the use of CSs when interacting with their learners. This paper examines teachers’ knowledge of the use of Communication Strategies (CSs) in Kiswahili as a Second Language (KSL) classrooms in Tanzania. In particular, the present paper seeks to determine the CSs used by KSL teachers and to ascertain their cognizance of the use of CSs in classroom interaction. The research on which this paper is based was a qualitative case study involving three KSL teachers, purposively sampled from the Kiswahili na Utamaduni (KIU) training centre. Classroom observation and personal interviews were used to collect data. Findings indicate that the teachers relied on code-switching and used CSs with limited knowledge of specific strategies. This study recommends that KSL teachers should be given awareness to be able to consider using recommended CSs effectively to facilitate classroom interaction. In addition, teachers’ training colleges should consider involving units on CSs in language teaching courses.