Abstract
Different applications require different customizations of silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) technology. We present a review on the latest SiPM technologies developed at Fondazione Bruno Kessler (FBK, Trento), characterized by a peak detection efficiency in the near-UV and customized according to the needs of different applications. Original near-UV sensitive, high-density SiPMs (NUV-HD), optimized for Positron Emission Tomography (PET) application, feature peak photon detection efficiency (PDE) of 63% at 420 nm with a 35 um cell size and a dark count rate (DCR) of 100 kHz/mm2. Correlated noise probability is around 25% at a PDE of 50% at 420 nm. It provides a coincidence resolving time (CRT) of 100 ps FWHM (full width at half maximum) in the detection of 511 keV photons, when used for the readout of LYSO(Ce) scintillator (Cerium-doped lutetium-yttrium oxyorthosilicate) and down to 75 ps FWHM with LSO(Ce:Ca) scintillator (Cerium and Calcium-doped lutetium oxyorthosilicate). Starting from this technology, we developed three variants, optimized according to different sets of specifications. NUV-HD–LowCT features a 60% reduction of direct crosstalk probability, for applications such as Cherenkov telescope array (CTA). NUV-HD–Cryo was optimized for cryogenic operation and for large photosensitive areas. The reference application, in this case, is the readout of liquid, noble-gases scintillators, such as liquid Argon. Measurements at 77 K showed a remarkably low value of the DCR of a few mHz/mm2. Finally, vacuum-UV (VUV)-HD features an increased sensitivity to VUV light, aiming at direct detection of photons below 200 nm. PDE in excess of 20% at 175 nm was measured in liquid Xenon. In the paper, we discuss the specifications on the SiPM related to different types of applications, the SiPM design challenges and process optimizations, and the results from the experimental characterization of the different, NUV-sensitive technologies developed at FBK.
Highlights
Silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs) are arrays of many single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs), each one with its integrated passive-quenching resistor, all connected in parallel to common anode and cathode
We describe different silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) technologies developed at Fondazione Bruno Kessler (FBK) and customized for different applications, outlining the most important design challenges
Experiments employing SiPMs for the readout of liquid scintillators usually require that the detectors are operated at cryogenic temperatures and cover very large sensitive areas
Summary
Silicon photomultipliers (SiPMs) are arrays of many (hundreds to tens of thousands) single-photon avalanche diodes (SPADs), each one with its integrated passive-quenching resistor, all connected in parallel to common anode and cathode. SiPMs have garnered growing attention as an alternative to the traditional photomultiplier tube in the detection of low photon fluxes thanks to a number of advantages typical of solid-state detectors and they are emerging as a very promising solution in many applications In this scenario, it must be considered that different applications require different optimizations and improvements of silicon photomultiplier (SiPM) technology. A different type of experiment that will use SiPMs is the Cherenkov telescope array (CTA), in which the detectors are used to observe the Cherenkov light emitted in air showers initiated by high-energy to very-high-energy gamma-rays from both galactic and extragalactic sources [10] In this case, SiPMs are operated in the presence of a significant amount of light generated by the night sky background and minimization of crosstalk probability is important to both reduce the rate of random triggers and to improve energy resolution. We describe modifications to the NUV-HD technology made to achieve better performance in the VUV range, obtaining the VUV-HD technology
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