Abstract
Cadmium (Cd) is a widespread heavy metal and a ubiquitous environmental toxicant. For the general population, the principal causes of Cd exposure are cigarette smoking, air pollution and contaminated water and food consumption, whereas occupational exposure usually involves humans working in mines or manufacturing batteries and pigments that utilize Cd. The aim of the present review is to evaluate recent data regarding the mechanisms of Cd-induced testicular structural and functional damages and the state of the art of the therapeutic approaches. Additionally, as the current literature demonstrates convincing associations between diet, food components and men’s sexual health, a coherent nutraceutical supplementation may be a new valid therapeutic strategy for both the prevention and alleviation of Cd-induced testicular injury. The toxic effects on testes induced by Cd include many specific mechanisms, such as oxidative stress, inflammation and apoptosis. As no specific therapy for the prevention or treatment of the morbidity and mortality associated with Cd exposure is available, the development of new therapeutic agents is requested. Dietary strategies and the use of nutraceuticals, particularly abundant in fresh fruits, beans, vegetables and grains, typical of the Mediterranean diet, are recommended against Cd-induced testicular injury.
Highlights
CadmiumA large quantity of pesticides and chemicals, necessary for the increase in the economic yield of soil and the production of electronic devices, vehicles, paints and other materials, are released into the environment [1,2]
toxic heavy metals” (THM) affect different physiological processes, even at very low concentrations [6], as they are used as a substitute of essential elements: Pb can take the place of calcium and Cd the place of Zn [7]
In addition to tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, Cd exposure is able to cause an increased concentration of IL-1β, IL-6, IL-10, inducible Nitric Oxide Synthase, Nitric Oxide (NO), Cyclooxygenase (COX)-2 and interferon (IFN)-γ owing to the augmented oxidative stress, which can have negative effects on spermiogenesis, cause structural changes in Sertoli cells junctions and interfere with the adhesion of the germinal epithelium to the tubular basement membrane [62]
Summary
A large quantity of pesticides and chemicals, necessary for the increase in the economic yield of soil and the production of electronic devices, vehicles, paints and other materials, are released into the environment [1,2]. In particular, mercury (Hg), cadmium (Cd), nickel (Ni), arsenic and lead (Pb), are not biodegradable and have a long biological half-life [4]; they accumulate in the environment and are absorbed by the human body As they have no identified useful biological function, they are considered as “toxic heavy metals” (THM) [5]. THM affect different physiological processes, even at very low concentrations [6], as they are used as a substitute of essential elements: Pb can take the place of calcium and Cd the place of Zn [7] As a result, they can cause numerous diseases, such as kidney toxicity [8], impaired lung function [9], neurotoxic effects [10,11], hormonal imbalance [12], abnormal spermatogenesis and infertility [13], and even cancer [14–16]. When compared with other heavy metals, Cd shows low toxic effects to the fetus and the central nervous system [34]
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