Notice of duplicate publication: “Globalization and the Labor Market: An Economic Approach.”

The current health care debate creates a sharp contrast between economic and noneconomic approaches to resource allocation. Many economists believe that resorting to cost containment measures will lead to shortages in health care delivery. The definition of and response to such shortages will be critical components of the debate. Shortages are not new: they have characterized the health care labor market for decades [8; 11]. There are strong differences between the economic and noneconomic views of shortages, however. Medical professionals define shortages in two ways: a needbased approach and a ratio technique. The former identifies the number of professionals needed to perform certain tasks based on the judgment of a medical professional. The latter compares the current professional/ population ratio to a projected future ratio, and identifies a difference as a shortage [2]. A variant of the latter is the one used by the Office of Shortage Designations, which identifies health professional shortage areas. U.S. policy has been to increase supply by subsidizing the training of medical personnel if they subsequently work a period in the shortage area. The economic approach is quite different. A shortage exists when quantity demanded is greater than the quantity supplied at the market price. Economists analyze the pricing mechanisms of the marketplace, and allow for both the substitution of other inputs and technological change [3]. In certain circumstances, such as if monopsony characterizes the market, supply side policies aimed at increasing the supply of medical personnel through federal educational subsidies might worsen the problem. This paper shows the differences in outcomes between the two different approaches, using the market for nurses as an example. We develop an economic model to identify shortage areas and compare this with that derived from the medical literature and used by the federal government.

In the introduction I reviewed the main propositions of two competing theoretical approaches to variation in employment performance among advanced industrialized democracies: the corporatist approach and an economic approach that relies on the assumption of perfectly competitive labor markets. The corporatist literature has been more successful than the neoclassical framework in explaining cross-national variation in macroeconomic and labor market outcomes. But corporatist studies fail to account for both cross-national and intertemporal changes in labor market outcomes across advanced industrialized economies. Most corporatist scholars praise the “institutional advantages” of economies with highly centralized labor market institutions for delivering egalitarian income distribution, high levels of wage moderation, and labor peace. But these studies do not provide an explanation for the deterioration of the labor market performance of these economies in the last two decades. The main theoretical objective of this chapter is to extend and amend the conclusions of the corporatist literature in an effort to explain both cross-national as well as intertemporal variation in employment outcomes. The outline of this chapter is as follows. I begin by reviewing the most significant theoretical developments in the literature that examine the impact of labor market institutions on labor market outcomes. These studies differ in the precise specification of the functional form of the relationship between labor market institutions and economic outcomes. Recent studies have formulated an important qualification of earlier results, suggesting that differences in a government's macroeconomic orientation affect both the optimal wage behavior of trade unions and the equilibrium level of unemployment.

The rise of neoliberal agendas of political actors and a wave of privatisation in the globalisation era have often been followed by anti-privatisation strikes. These are union strikes against the privatisation process and against contracting out and opening markets to competition. The article presents the distinction between different versions of constitutionalism regarding anti-privatisation strikes. It discusses two approaches to constitutionalism – the economic approach and the collective approach – and their manifestation in the case law of Israel and the United Kingdom.The collective approach suggests the recognition of a constitutional status of collective rights as a basis for counter-balancing the neoliberal practices of regulators and political actors. Following the effects of liberalisation on the labour market – both in influencing union organisational capacity and in weakening job security of individual employees, the collective approach is aimed at protecting employees’ rights in a globalised-privatised era. Within the collective approach, constitutionalism is used as a basis for recognising anti-privatisation strikes. In contrast, the economic approach denies the existence of a constitutional right to strike against privatisation.The article presents an eclectic model which merges the two approaches, and advocates its adoption. Drawing on New Institutional Economics, the eclectic model offers a theory for moderating the constitutionalism practice and developing partial and restrained constitutionalism. It proposes the adoption of a constitutional right to strike against privatisation, when its application reduces transaction costs and advances efficiency and economic goals for the benefit of the public.

Crime and the labor market: A search model with optimal contracts

The changes in Czech agriculture over the past twenty years have had their impact on the agricultural labour market, too. The regional differentiation of the chances of applicants on the labour market as well as the agricultural enterprises’ chances of hiring employees fitting their requirements, are, among others, influenced by the specific conditions of agricultural production. The aim of this paper pertains to two basic problem areas: first, the differentiation of respective regions based on the number of agricultural applicants and job vacancies, and second, the identification of disequilibrium on the agricultural labour market. The latter is based on a theoretical framework defined by approaches in economy dealing with labour market equilibrium. Due to the unavailability of economic data (including wages, economic performance, etc.) on the regional level, authors develop their own methodological approach, based on the number of applicants per job vacancy. A database of applicants and vacancies available from the Labour Offices is used as a source for the analysis and interpretation of data, enabling us to study the agricultural labour market not only sector-wise but also region-wise.

Over the past several decades, welfare states across the developed Western world, including Israel, have adopted differential employment policies for disadvantaged marginal populations that perform poorly in the labor market and are underrepresented in it. The intensive and rapid shift from Keynesian welfare policy to a more economical and efficient neoliberal approach sparked great turbulence in Israel's labor market, leaving broad swaths of the country's marginal populations outside of the capitalistic post-scarcity economy. In this article, we examine third-sector initiatives and governmental employment policies aimed at integrating and advancing Haredim (ultra-Orthodox Jews) in the Israeli labor market. We also explore the tension between welfare, with its associated benefits and governmental assistance mechanisms, and the neoliberal approach, with its reliance on economic efficiency tests. The article looks at how the Haredi sector's labor market integration process has evolved. We aim to understand parallel developments between the processes outlined by the state and the Haredi community's socioeconomic needs under a neoliberal regime that prizes competition, achievement, and materialism – a regime in which social institutions are being reshaped, adjusted, and disciplined in accordance with market-oriented principles. We will examine the forces working behind the scenes to integrate Haredim in the economy and in society as a whole – the top-down policy forces striving to increase Israeli economic output, and the bottom-up internal-civic forces that want to create normative and economically feasible alternatives to the Haredi “society of learners” that developed under welfare-state auspices. The article seeks to answer three main questions in light of the aforementioned processes: How did the shift from a Keynesian welfare state to state workfare contribute to Haredi integration in the Israeli employment market? Who were the key political-social-economic actors and forces that shaped the process of Haredi labor market integration? And finally: how has neoliberal employment policy affected the Haredi community on the gender, spatial (center-periphery), class, and community planes, i.e., has this policy approach helped strengthen the Haredi middle class, and if so, how?

The emergence of an industrial labor market is an important dimension of structural change in the 19th and 20th century western world. The paper describes how the labor market has been modeled in economic theory from classical liberalism through neo-classicism up to the New Institutional Economics and evaluates the fruitfulness of these theoretical schools for historical analysis. The examination of the changes in how economic theory has treated the exchange of labor in markets suggests that the separation of the once-integral subject of national economy into theory and history was accompanied by a fading concern for the institutional framework of labor market processes. It argues that this lack of institutional foundation has widened the gap between economic and historical approaches and led to an artificial vision of labor markets which is not appropriate for historical-empirical questions. In the author’s view, meaningful empirical findings in this field call for a theoretical framework for labor market analysis that is institutionally sensitive. The paper concludes that this goal can best be achieved by refashioning the theory-kit according to the postulates laid down in the New Institutional Economics.

The emergence of an industrial labor market is an important dimension of structural change in the 19th and 20th century western world. The paper describes how the labor market has been modeled in economic theory from classical liberalism through neo-classicism up to the New Institutional Economics and evaluates the fruitfulness of these theoretical schools for historical analysis. The examination of the changes in how economic theory has treated the exchange of labor in markets suggests that the separation of the once-integral subject of national economy into theory and history was accompanied by a fading concern for the institutional framework of labor market processes. It argues that this lack of institutional foundation has widened the gap between economic and historical approaches and led to an artificial vision of labor markets which is not appropriate for historical-empirical questions. In the author’s view, meaningful empirical findings in this field call for a theoretical framework for labor market analysis that is institutionally sensitive. The paper concludes that this goal can best be achieved by refashioning the theory-kit according to the postulates laid down in the New Institutional Economics.

Since the turn of the twentieth century, legislation in Western countries has expanded rapidly to reverse the brief dominance of laissez faire during the nineteenth century. The state no longer merely protects against violations of person and property through murder, rape, or burglary but also restricts ‘discrimination’ against certain minorities, collusive business arrangements, ‘jaywalking’, travel, the materials used in construction, and thousands of other activities. The activities restricted not only are numerous but also range widely, affecting persons in very different pursuits and of diverse social backgrounds, education levels, ages, races, etc. Moreover, the likelihood that an offender will be discovered and convicted and the nature and extent of punishments differ greatly from person to person and activity to activity. Yet, in spite of such diversity, some common properties are shared by practically all legislation, and these properties form the subject matter of this essay.

1. IntroductionAlthough the literature on migration determinants in sub-Saharan Africa is extensive, most focuses on internal migration (Lucas 2006). Compared to the theoretical and empirical literature of international migration elsewhere, relatively little is known about international African migration, especially that outside the continent (Adepoju 2004; Lucas 2006; Grillo and Mazzucato 2008; Hatton and Williamson 2003). Most existing studies have adopted a qualitative approach, and the few quantitative studies are based either on aggregate data or cross-sectional micro-data (e.g., Hatton and Williamson 2003; Schoorl et al. 2000; van Dalen, Groenewold, and Schoorl 2005). As a result, there is a dearth of knowledge and quantitative empirical evidence about what drives migration from Sub-Saharan Africa, and whether this is similar to migration from other geographical regions.Acknowledging the need for appropriate data to remedy this state of affairs, the Migrations between Africa and Europe (MAFE) project collected rich retrospective biographical data in several locations in Africa and Europe (Beauchemin 2012)3. Here we use MAFE data to examine the drivers of Senegalese migration to Europe between 1976 and 2008. This migration system is an example of migration from Sub-Saharan Africa to developed societies. Although comparatively modest in absolute numbers, this migration stream has developed quickly since the 1980s.In this study we pay particular attention to the links between the micro-level factors that influence migration decisions and political, social, and economic processes in both Senegal and Europe. Very few empirical studies have examined how migration relates to historical social and economic transformations (Sassen 1988; Portes 1997; Castles and Miller 2009). Our perspective highlights the importance of institutions in regulating migration behavior and shaping migration dynamics4. Particularly useful for our purposes are several insights from institutional approaches in economics and development research that analyze how social institutions regulate migration behavior (Stark 1991; de Haan 1999; Ellis 2000). The specific characteristics of the origin and destination labor markets are central to understanding migration (Piore 1979; Portes and Bach 1985; Reyneri 2003; Villarreal and Blanchard 2013). Social groups and relationships, including migration networks and families, greatly influence migration (Massey 1990; Stark 1991). Although different, the perspectives above share several conceptual parallels. They place individual behavior in a wider societal context, analyzing how social institutions function and their role in migration. By highlighting the role of families and social networks they take into account (household) decision-making. We argue that integrating these perspectives can enhance the understanding of migration processes through a more complete consideration of how origin and destination factors interact.Our analyses focus on the following hypotheses.1) Economic Insecurity Hypothesis. The long period of economic recession experienced in Senegal and the associated reshaping of social and economic relationships involved a general deterioration of living conditions and heightened economic insecurity, which created the conditions for increasing out-migration propensities.2) Labor Demand Hypothesis. Labor market restructuring in Europe provided job opportunities in particular niches and locations.3) Social Capital Hypothesis. For Senegalese migrants, social networks link the above processes by channeling job access in Europe.4) Interaction between Labor Demand and Social Capital Hypothesis. The conjunction of periods of strong labor demand and the availability of personal networks in Europe creates a boosting effect on the migration probabilities of the Senegalese to Europe.These hypotheses specify under what conditions particular mechanisms, proposed in previous literature, are activated, leading to the development of the migration system between Senegal and Europe. …

This thesis starts by critically assessing human capital theory in the study of education and labour markets. It is argued that, while revealing the statistical significance of factors like ethnicity in education and labour markets, it does not help us to imderstand how education is provided and how labour markets are structured. The reason for this is that it leaves aside the historical and institutional contexts from the analysis, so that the question of why factors like ethnicity gain significance in education and labour markets carmot be addressed appropriately. These fundamental flaws undermine the relevance of human capital theory in the study of higher education and labour markets, and they are indeed compounded in the empirical application to the Malaysian case. Rather than applying the theory or remedying its analytical deficiencies, therefore, this thesis breaks with it and instead adopts a political economy approach that places the role of government at the analytical centre. Being a multi-ethnic coimtry, Malaysia's higher education and labour market policies reflect the trade-off between equity, or inter-ethnic distribution, and efficiency, or economic growth. The main purpose for this is to maintain social stability by lifting up the socio-economic status of Malays whilst increasing the economic pie to distribute. The New Economic Policy set the institutional foundation on which these policies are introduced and implemented. Access to higher education and provision of higher educational services are institutionally arranged in favour of Malays, and the public sector is geared towards employing them. Empirical analysis of the Population and Housing Census Malaysia 2000 points to ethnic differentials in access to higher education and sector selection in labour markets. It is also found that the ethnic factor persists from higher education through to labour markets, implying that the decisions of higher education enrolment and sector selection are made simultaneously.

The paper discusses two approaches to spatial equilibrium in the labor market. The more traditional approach of labor economics assumes wage differentials represent arbitrageable differences in utility, with implications 1) that migration should be toward higher wage areas and 2) that migration flows will lead to convergence in wages over space. The more recent approach of urban/regional economics follows Roback in examining the implications of assumed equilibrium in utility over space. In this view wage differentials are compensatory (along with rent differentials) for amenity variation over space. The implications for wage convergence over space are complicated, but in general there would be little inherent reason to expect convergence. This paper takes the view that falling moving costs, combined with greatly improved information about locations, renders the urban/regional approach the more relevant in recent decades. Numerous additional insights about this approach are discussed.

The long ongoing discussion about the employment impact of minimum wages was recently reinvigorated with the introduction of an economy-wide, binding minimum wage in Germany in 2015. In the traditional line of reasoning, based on the allocational approach of modern labor market economics, it has been suggested that the impact is clearly negative on the assumption of a competitive labor market and clearly positive on the assumption of a monopsonistic labor market. Unfortunately, both predictions conflict with the empirical findings, which do not show a clear-cut impact of significant size in either direction. As an alternative, a Post Keynesian two-sector model including an employment market is presented here. Its most likely prediction of a negligible employment effect and a sectoral shift is tested against the German case of an introduction of a statutory minimum wage in 2015. Despite substantial wage increases in the low wage sector, our empirical analysis reveals very low overall employment loss, amounting to about 26,500 workers, as a result of a small sectoral shift from low wage industries to higher wage industries.

An economic approach known as the "sharing economy" facilitates resource sharing via an online platform. It is distinguished by the sharing of unwanted items or the right to utilize resources, as well as the use of technology and trust to create a sharing platform in order to realize the vision of a collaborative economy. The development of the sharing economy has had an impact on the labor market. The pressure on employment has decreased due to the rise of new informal employment models, but it has also had an effect on conventional labor relations. The laborers' ties to the platform have deteriorated, and issues like the inadequate defense of social rights and interests have come to light. Platforms for the sharing economy should adhere to the "sharing benefits and responsibilities" idea to split the cost of workers' social security and advance economic growth. A major driver of economic growth is the rise in informal employment that has been brought about by the sharing economy. Workers have more employment possibilities and flexible work schedules under the shared labor paradigm. However, there are also obstacles to the sharing economy's growth, such as ambiguous legal obligations and social security problems. In the future, the sharing economy must support social rights and interests and work with the government, businesses, and labor to further the sharing economy's sustainable growth.

Secondary school education provides a foundation for acquisition of further knowledge and skills in tertiary institutions of learning. It is a bed-rock where future productive human capital is nurtured to serve the dynamic needs of a nation’s labour market and the economy in general. Education is used to achieve more rapid economic, social, political, technological, scientific and cultural development in a country. In Kenyan education system, mathematics is a compulsory and an examinable subject offered at all levels of learning except for tertiary institutions where it is selective, yet requisite in some courses of study. There is much emphasis on mathematics performance examined nationally by the Kenya National Examinations Council (KNEC) hence necessitating the current study. As a matter of fact, students’ performance in mathematics has attracted attention from various stakeholders and further raised interest in teachers’ qualification in delivering the subject matter. This study ought to establish the influence of teacher competence on mathematics performance in KCSE examinations among public secondary schools in Nyatike Sub-county, Kenya. Teacher competence was conceptualized in terms of teacher educational qualification, teacher training and teacher experience and mathematics performance as the dependent variable. The study was based on three models namely; economical approach, stakeholder theory of management and humanistic-progressive model. The study used a descriptive research design with a survey method and targeted 50 public secondary schools. The researcher used structured questionnaires to collect data from the sampled respondents. The collected questionnaires were then analyzed using SPSS version 20. Both linear regression analysis and Pearson correlation analysis were used and the results presented in tables. The study findings revealed positive correlations between; teacher educational qualifications with mathematics performance, teacher training with mathematics performance, and teacher experience with mathematics performance. However, it was also noted thatsome teachers holding diplomas from reputable colleges such as Kenya Science University College perform better than those with undergraduate degrees from universities.