Abstract

Different forms of outdoor recreation have different spatiotemporal activity patterns that may have interactive or cumulative effects on wildlife through human disturbance, physical habitat change, or both. In western North America, shrub‐steppe habitats near urban areas are popular sites for motorized recreation and nonmotorized recreation and can provide important habitat for protected species, including golden eagles. Our objective was to determine whether recreation use (i.e., number of recreationists) or recreation features (e.g., trails or campsites) predicted golden eagle territory occupancy, egg‐laying, or the probability a breeding attempt resulted in ≥1 offspring (nest survival). We monitored egg‐laying, hatching and fledging success, eagle behavior, and recreation activity within 23 eagle territories near Boise, Idaho, USA. Territories with more off‐road vehicle (ORV) use were less likely to be occupied than territories with less ORV use (β = −1.6, 85% CI: −2.8 to −0.8). At occupied territories, early season pedestrian use (β = −1.6, 85% CI: −3.8 to −0.2) and other nonmotorized use (β = −3.6, 85% CI: −10.7 to −0.3) reduced the probability of egg‐laying. At territories where eagles laid eggs, short, interval‐specific peaks in ORV use were associated with decreased nest survival (β = −0.5, 85% CI: −0.8 to −0.2). Pedestrians, who often arrived near eagle nests via motorized vehicles, were associated with reduced nest attendance (β = −11.9, 85% CI: −19.2 to −4.5), an important predictor of nest survival. Multiple forms of recreation may have cumulative effects on local populations by reducing occupancy at otherwise suitable territories, decreasing breeding attempts, and causing nesting failure. Seasonal no‐stopping zones for motorized vehicles may be an alternative to trail closures for managing disturbance. This study demonstrates the importance of considering human disturbance across different parts of the annual cycle, particularly where multiple forms of recreation have varying spatiotemporal use patterns that create human–wildlife interactions.

Highlights

  • Recreation is increasing on public lands that provide important habitat for species of conservation concern (Balmford et al, 2015; Cordell, Green, & Betz, 2009)

  • We investigated whether nonmotorized recreation and motorized recreation, affected eagle territory occupancy, egg-l­aying, and nest survival, the probability a breeding attempt survived from egg-­laying to ≥1 offspring reaching fledging age (Steenhof & Newton, 2007)

  • Egg-­laying, and nest survival were negatively associated with off-­road vehicle use, pedestrian and other nonmotorized recreation, and short-­term peaks in ORV use, respectively

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Summary

| INTRODUCTION

Recreation is increasing on public lands that provide important habitat for species of conservation concern (Balmford et al, 2015; Cordell, Green, & Betz, 2009). Studies that simultaneously investigate the behavioral responses of individuals to different types of recreation and how these translate into population-­level outcomes may be useful for identifying specific recreation–wildlife interactions that can be managed to reduce the negative effects of recreation on wildlife populations (Anthony, Steidl, & McGarigal, 1995; Beale & Monaghan, 2004; Kight & Swaddle, 2007; Liley & Sutherland, 2007; Rodríquez-P­ rieto & Fernández-­Juricic, 2005). We investigated whether nonmotorized recreation (including horseback riding, mountain biking, and pedestrian uses such as hiking, walking, and running) and motorized recreation (including ORVs and road vehicles), affected eagle territory occupancy, egg-l­aying, and nest survival, the probability a breeding attempt survived from egg-­laying to ≥1 offspring reaching fledging age (Steenhof & Newton, 2007). In addition to monitoring occupancy and breeding outcomes, we observed eagle behavior, modeled which behaviors best predicted nest survival, and examined effects of recreation on behavior

| METHODS
Findings
| DISCUSSION
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