Abstract
BackgroundGlyphosate-based herbicides are the most widely used pesticides in agriculture, horticulture, municipalities and private gardens that can potentially contaminate nearby water bodies inhabited by amphibians and algae. Moreover, the development and diversity of these aquatic organisms could also be affected by human-induced climate change that might lead to more periods with extreme temperatures. However, to what extent non-target effects of these herbicides on amphibians or algae are altered by varying temperature is not well known.MethodsWe studied effects of five concentrations of the glyphosate-based herbicide formulation Roundup PowerFlex (0, 1.5, 3, 4 mg acid equivalent glyphosate L−1 as a one time addition and a pulse treatment of totally 4 mg a.e. glyphosate L−1) on larval development of Common toads (Bufo bufo, L.; Amphibia: Anura) and associated algae communities under two temperature regimes (15 vs. 20 °C).ResultsHerbicide contamination reduced tail growth (−8%), induced the occurrence of tail deformations (i.e. lacerated or crooked tails) and reduced algae diversity (−6%). Higher water temperature increased tadpole growth (tail and body length (tl/bl) +66%, length-to-width ratio +4%) and decreased algae diversity (−21%). No clear relation between herbicide concentrations and tadpole growth or algae density or diversity was observed. Interactive effects of herbicides and temperature affected growth parameters, tail deformation and tadpole mortality indicating that the herbicide effects are temperature-dependent. Remarkably, herbicide-temperature interactions resulted in deformed tails in 34% of all herbicide treated tadpoles at 15 °C whereas no tail deformations were observed for the herbicide-free control at 15 °C or any tadpole at 20 °C; herbicide-induced mortality was higher at 15 °C but lower at 20 °C.DiscussionThese herbicide- and temperature-induced changes may have decided effects on ecological interactions in freshwater ecosystems. Although no clear dose-response effect was seen, the presence of glyphosate was decisive for an effect, suggesting that the lowest observed effect concentration (LOEC) in our study was 1.5 mg a.e. glyphosate L−1 water. Overall, our findings also question the relevance of pesticide risk assessments conducted at standard temperatures.
Highlights
With almost a third of their species threatened, amphibians are the most vulnerable vertebrate group on earth (International Union for Conservation of Nature, 2004)
Especially anuran amphibians are always associated with algae communities that constitute an important source of nutrition during larval development; algae are likewise affected by similar environmental factors as amphibians (Whitehead et al, 2009; Wilson et al, 2003)
The current study examined the effects of a glyphosate-based herbicide on growth and development of larvae of Common toads (Bufo bufo L.) and on the composition of the associated algal communities
Summary
With almost a third of their species threatened, amphibians are the most vulnerable vertebrate group on earth (International Union for Conservation of Nature, 2004). Amphibian declines and extinctions are caused by multiple factors and their interaction: alien species, over-exploitation and land use change, global change, increased use of pesticides and other toxic chemicals and infectious diseases (Aldrich et al, 2016; Blaustein et al, 2011; Bruhl et al, 2013; Collins & Storfer, 2003) In their natural habitats, especially anuran amphibians are always associated with algae communities that constitute an important source of nutrition during larval development; algae are likewise affected by similar environmental factors as amphibians (Whitehead et al, 2009; Wilson et al, 2003). Herbicide-temperature interactions resulted in deformed tails in 34% of all herbicide treated tadpoles at 15 C whereas no tail deformations were observed for the herbicide-free control at 15 C or any tadpole at 20 C; herbicide-induced mortality was higher at 15 C but lower at 20 C
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