Non-linearity in Johnson noise thermometry

Abstract

This paper discusses the effects of non-linearity, some of the mechanisms responsible for non-linearity, and methods for measuring non-linearity in Johnson noise thermometry. Mechanisms considered include quantum tunnelling, bipolar junction transistor and junction field-effect transistor amplifiers, feedback, clipping, output-stage crossover, quantization and dither. It is found that even- and odd-order effects behave differently in correlator-based noise thermometers, with the dominant even-order effects contributing as intermodulation products whereas the dominant odd-order contributions are third-order and at the same frequencies as the parent signals. Possible test methods include the use of discrete tones, changes in spectral shape, and direct measurement using reference noise powers. For correlators operated at constant noise power, direct measurement of non-linearity using reference noise powers enables corrections to be made with negligible additional uncertainty and measurement time.