Nomadic Alternatives: Forming the State on Horseback

Abstract

Formation of the Xiongnu state was preceded by more than 1,000 years of political experimentation across the eastern steppe zone. The preceding Bronze and Early Iron Age period produced an increased reliance on herd animals and mobility, greater use of domestic horses for traction and riding, the creation of substantial networks of long-distance contacts, and the spread of technologies, ritual systems, beliefs, and material culture—all of which set the foundation for political transformation at the beginning of the Xiongnu period (4th–3rd centuries BC). Early historical reports and archaeological evidence provide two different perspectives on the Xiongnu phenomenon. I give an overview of the historical accounts and an introduction to Xiongnu archaeology and site types. Survey and excavation results from two local areas in Mongolia provide evidence for early political changes associated with the Xiongnu period, and this inspires a new explanation for how the first nomadic state came to be.