Nod2-mediated recognition of the microbiota is critical for mucosal adjuvant activity of cholera toxin.

Abstract

Cholera toxin (CT) is a potent adjuvant for inducing mucosal immune responses. However, the mechanism by which CT induces adjuvant activity remains unclear. Here we show that the microbiota is critical for inducing antigen-specific IgG production after intranasal immunization. After mucosal vaccination with CT, both antibiotic-treated mice and germ-free (GF) had reduced antigen-specific IgG, recall-stimulated cytokine responses, an impaired follicular helper T (TFH) response and reduced plasma cells. Recognition of symbiotic bacteria via Nod2 in CD11c+ cells was required for the adjuvanticity of CT. Reconstitution of GF mice with a Nod2 agonist or Staphylococcus sciuri having high Nod2-stimulatory activity was sufficient to promote robust CT adjuvant activity whereas bacteria with low Nod2-stimulatory activity did not. Mechanistically, CT enhanced Nod2-mediated cytokine production in DCs via intracellular cAMP. These results show an important role for the microbiota and the intracellular receptor Nod2 in promoting the mucosal adjuvant activity of CT.