Abstract
This paper focuses on approaches by non‐government organisations (NGOs) to reach primary school‐aged children excluded from access to the conventional state education system. It highlights recent shifts in international literature and agency priorities from the portrayal of NGO provision as a (non‐formal) ‘alternative’ to (formal) state schooling, towards developing approaches for ‘complementary’ provision. This shift is occurring as a means of making progress towards achieving Education for All (EFA) goals. The paper then compares these international trends with attention paid to NGO provision in national education plans across four countries (Bangladesh, India, Ethiopia and Ghana). Based on the analysis of international and national approaches, the paper argues that NGO provision continues to be seen as ‘second‐best’ to state schooling, with state schooling remaining the focus of attention for EFA.
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