Nephrotoxic metals of cadmium, lead, mercury and arsenic and the odds of kidney stones in adults: An exposure-response analysis of NHANES 2007–2016

Abstract

BackgroundNephrotoxic metals of arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury exposures are common environmental pollutants. The associations between arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury exposures and the risk of kidney stones are unclear. ObjectiveTo explore the associations between biomarkers of arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury exposures and the odds of kidney stones. MethodsAdult participants (≥20 years) from the 2007–2016 NHANES were included. Restricted cubic splines were adopted. ResultsThe odds ratio (95% confidence interval) of kidney stones increased with increasing blood cadmium and reached the maximum at 1.00 μg/L [1.38 (1.02–1.88) overall, 1.62 (1.11–2.32) for women and 1.53 (1.06–2.22) for non-Hispanic white]. The odds of kidney stones increased with increasing urinary cadmium and reached the maximum at 1.50 μg/L [2.56 (1.17–5.59) overall, 5.57 (1.88–16.49) for women, 4.31 (1.75–10.63) for obese individuals and 3.75 (1.60–8.78) for non-Hispanic white]. The odds of kidney stones increased with increasing total urinary arsenic and urinary dimethylarsinic acid in women, and reached the maximum of 1.69 (1.08–2.67) at 40 μg/L and 1.71 (1.07–2.72) at 10.00 μg/L, respectively. Inverse associations were found between the odds of kidney stones and blood lead within 5.00 μg/dL [0.64 (0.46–0.90) overall, 0.53 (0.33–0.84) for men and 0.58 (0.37–0.92) for non-Hispanic white], methyl mercury within 3.00 μg/L [non-obese individuals: 0.71 (0.51–0.99)] and urinary arsenous acid within 1.20 μg/L [individuals other than non-Hispanic white: 0.63 (0.41–0.95)]. No association was found with other biomarkers. ConclusionsSeveral biomarkers of arsenic, cadmium, lead and mercury exposures were associated with the odds of kidney stones in adults.