Abstract
Nowadays, safe and efficacious vaccines represent powerful and cost-effective tools for global health and economic growth. In the veterinary field, these are undoubtedly key tools for improving productivity and fighting zoonoses. However, cases of persistent infections, rapidly evolving pathogens having high variability or emerging/re-emerging pathogens for which no effective vaccines have been developed point out the continuing need for new vaccine alternatives to control outbreaks. Most licensed vaccines have been successfully used for many years now; however, they have intrinsic limitations, such as variable efficacy, adverse effects, and some shortcomings. More effective adjuvants and novel delivery systems may foster real vaccine effectiveness and timely implementation. Emerging vaccine technologies involving nanoparticles such as self-assembling proteins, virus-like particles, liposomes, virosomes, and polymeric nanoparticles offer novel, safe, and high-potential approaches to address many vaccine development-related challenges. Nanotechnology is accelerating the evolution of vaccines because nanomaterials having encapsulation ability and very advantageous properties due to their size and surface area serve as effective vehicles for antigen delivery and immunostimulatory agents. This review discusses the requirements for an effective, broad-coverage-elicited immune response, the main nanoplatforms for producing it, and the latest nanovaccine applications for fighting animal pathogens.
Highlights
The vaccine impact today is broad and far-reaching, being an essential public health tool with significant benefits for society, highly influencing the worldwide economy and even impacting biodefence strategies [1]
No efficacious vaccines are available for most highly contagious and epidemic animal diseases [19]. This is mainly due to the intrinsic limitations of traditional vaccinology approaches and other limitations, such as adverse effects, the low avidity of vaccine-induced antibodies (Abs) against respiratory syncytial virus (RSV), or the partial protection they induce against a large and significant amount of pathogens such as Dengue virus or the Plasmodium parasites causing malaria in which induced protection is less than 50% (Table 1; [20,21,22])
Zhang et al (2020) constructed a vaccine based on single-wall carbon nanotubes interacting with antigen-presenting cells’ mannose receptor, combined with rhabdovirus mannosylated antigen in fish; such a vaccine had greater reuptake by macrophages and tissue associated with an immune response 6 h after immersion, achieving up to 63.5% survival rates compared to the control group [89]
Summary
The vaccine impact today is broad and far-reaching, being an essential public health tool with significant benefits for society, highly influencing the worldwide economy and even impacting biodefence strategies [1]. Anti-SARS-CoV-2 vaccines have been shown to have very good initial protective efficacy, antibody titres decrease a few months after vaccination and the emergence of new variants has raised concerns about the vaccination strategy used [6,7,8,9] These are impressive human diseases, their broad tropism, host evolution-related adaptation via single mutations (and the possibility of new mutations altering tropism), many unknown host restriction mechanisms, and the lack of restricted human receptors suggest (at least for some of them) important a priori potential for infecting animal cells and developing disease. Most licensed vaccines are traditional inactivated or live attenuated vaccines; viral vector vaccines and subunit-based vaccines have proven to be very useful because of their intrinsic ability to act as adjuvants, infect cells, or activate innate immune responses These are essential tools for controlling seasonal influenza and many important veterinary and zoonotic diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) or rabies, in turn positively impacting animal productivity, food security, and several human diseases [18]. Information regarding human vaccines has been mentioned to describe the wide range of potential platforms and approaches available for veterinary vaccine development
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