Abstract
Simple SummaryThe key factor in preventing premature death from cancer is an early and accurate diagnosis. While common diagnostic procedures are successful in the detection and rough description of a tumor mass, a deeper insight into cancer’s molecular features is needed to optimize the treatment and increase the chances of survival. Nanotechnology can aid the molecular diagnostics of cancers through a design of nanomaterials that can simultaneously recognize specific cancer-associated molecules, so-called tumor biomarkers, and allow for their visualization by different imaging techniques. With a recent explosion in the production of various nanomaterials, the selection of the most suitable nanomaterial for tumor biomarker detection becomes a challenge. In this article, we review recent advances in the molecular diagnostics of cancer using nanotechnology and focus on liganded noble metal quantum nanoclusters, a class of ultrasmall nanomaterials with distinctive structural and optical properties, as tools in tumor biomarker detection.Cancer is one of the leading causes of premature death, and, as such, it can be prevented by developing strategies for early and accurate diagnosis. Cancer diagnostics has evolved from the macroscopic detection of malignant tissues to the fine analysis of tumor biomarkers using personalized medicine approaches. Recently, various nanomaterials have been introduced into the molecular diagnostics of cancer. This has resulted in a number of tumor biomarkers that have been detected in vitro and in vivo using nanodevices and corresponding imaging techniques. Atomically precise ligand-protected noble metal quantum nanoclusters represent an interesting class of nanomaterials with a great potential for the detection of tumor biomarkers. They are characterized by high biocompatibility, low toxicity, and suitability for controlled functionalization with moieties specifically recognizing tumor biomarkers. Their non-linear optical properties are of particular importance as they enable the visualization of nanocluster-labeled tumor biomarkers using non-linear optical techniques such as two-photon-excited fluorescence and second harmonic generation. This article reviews liganded nanoclusters among the different nanomaterials used for molecular cancer diagnosis and the relevance of this new class of nanomaterials as non-linear optical probe and contrast agents.
Highlights
Some limitations of tissue biopsies have been overcome by the development of imaging approaches, whereby entire tumors are visualized in situ
The foundations laid more than a century ago by the discovery of X-rays [5] have allowed for the development of techniques such as X-ray computed tomography (CT), positron emission tomography (PET), single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT), and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) (Table 1)
The introduction of genomics, epigenetics, proteomics, metabolomics, informatics, and imaging techniques has greatly improved our understanding of cancer’s molecular features and allowed for improved survival prospects for patients by matching tumor characteristics with complementary therapy [20]. These methods are applicable to the analyses of tumor tissue biopsies as well as liquid biopsies, which contain biomarkers released by the tumor into bodily fluids, such as circulating tumor nucleic acids and circulating tumor cells (CTC) [21,22]
Summary
Tumor biomarkers are specific entities produced by cancer cells that can be found in the tumor itself or in the tissues and body fluids of patients. Altered levels of a wide range of entities, such as cells, proteins, peptides, post-translational modifications, metabolites, nucleic acids, and genetic variations, can reveal the presence of cancer in the body as well as help in individualized risk factor assessments, prognostics, and therapy response prediction [15]. Unnecessary exposure to toxic therapies can be avoided by genotyping patients. This example highlights the complexity of cancer and the need for the discovery of effective tumor biomarkers that will help in achieving the goals of precision medicine and allow the stratification of patients
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