Abstract
Chronic kidney disease (CKD) is a dilapidating problem that causes great global burden since the current therapeutic options are mostly ineffective. Early diagnosis and efficient treatment are essential to prevent the progression of CKD. Nanoparticles as technological drivers of innovation have emerged in biomedical studies for different theranostic applications. Several nanoparticles have been developed, which can be labeled with targeting moieties for both drug delivery and/or imaging systems and are investigated to detect different pathological conditions. The focus of this review is to demonstrate the current research and clinical applications for nanoparticles in the diagnosis of CKD and other renal diseases that will probably result in CKD.
Highlights
A general classification of kidney diseases could be its division into acute kidney injury (AKI) and chronic kidney diseases (CKD)
AKI usually occurs when the serum creatinine level exceeds 0.3 mg/dL within 48 h or the urine volume is below 0.5 mL/k/h for 6 h, or serum creatinine surges up to more than 1.5 times baseline
The current guideline categorizes CKD into five stages according to the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) level
Summary
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. The current guideline categorizes CKD into five stages according to the glomerular filtration rate (GFR) level. Stage 1 CKD is considered as renal damage, but the GFR is normal (90) or increased. In stage 5, renal failure occurs and the GFR is below. Nanoparticles as drug/gene delivery vehicles and contrast agents in imaging have been extensively used [13]. In this context, a wide range of organic, inorganic, polymeric, lipid, and glycan compounds have been successfully applied [14]. NPs have been applied in the measurement of renal morphology and function and targeted delivery of different therapeutics. The current mini-review highlights the effect of produced NPs in the detection of CKD
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