Abstract
Nanomaterial-modified detection systems represent a chief driver towards the adoption of electrochemical methods, since nanomaterials enable functional tunability, ability to self-assemble, and novel electrical, optical and catalytic properties that emerge at this scale. This results in tremendous gains in terms of sensitivity, selectivity and versatility. We review the electrochemical methods and mechanisms that may be applied to the detection of neurological drugs. We focus on understanding how specific nano-sized modifiers may be applied to influence the electron transfer event to result in gains in sensitivity, selectivity and versatility of the detection system. This critical review is structured on the basis of the Anatomical Therapeutic Chemical (ATC) Classification System, specifically ATC Code N (neurotransmitters). Specific sections are dedicated to the widely used electrodes based on the carbon materials, supporting electrolytes, and on electrochemical detection paradigms for neurological drugs and neurotransmitters within the groups referred to as ATC codes N01 to N07. We finally discuss emerging trends and future challenges such as the development of strategies for simultaneous detection of multiple targets with high spatial and temporal resolutions, the integration of microfluidic strategies for selective and localized analyte pre-concentration, the real-time monitoring of neurotransmitter secretions from active cell cultures under electro- and chemotactic cues, aptamer-based biosensors, and the miniaturization of the sensing system for detection in small sample volumes and for enabling cost savings due to manufacturing scale-up. The Electronic Supporting Material (ESM) includes review articles dealing with the review topic in last 40 years, as well as key properties of the analytes, viz., pKa values, half-life of drugs and their electrochemical mechanisms. The ESM also defines analytical figures of merit of the drugs and neurotransmitters. The article contains 198 references in the main manuscript and 207 references in the Electronic Supporting Material. Figureᅟ Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s00604-014-1308-4) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
Highlights
Quantitative analysis of pharmaceuticals is essential during various phases of drug development and during the fabrication stage, to ensure appropriate formulation, stability and quality
Limitations posed to electrochemical analysis include the need for significant electroactivity of the analyte of interest, complications from interfering species that may be present at far higher concentration levels than the analyte of interest, signal and background drifts due to electrode fouling and charging, and, the lack of a strategy for simultaneous detection of multiple targets, which is especially essential for monitoring neurological processes
The synthesis of materials in the 1 – 100 nm size range is becoming increasingly important due to the gains offered by their functional tunability, versatility, ability of self-assembly [16, 17], and the emergence of novel properties of materials at this length scale [18,19,20]
Summary
Cinnarizine clomipramine clozapine cobalt nanoparticles codeine cyclic voltammetry desipramine desvenlafaxine dextromethorphan differential pulse voltammetry dopamine electrochemical impedance spectroscopy epinephirine edge-plane pyrolytic graphite electrode fast scanning cyclic voltammetry gabapentin glassy carbon electrode glassy carbon paste electrode gold nanoparticles graphene graphene nanosheet high performance liquid chromatography imipramine ionic liquid lamotrigine levodopa limit of detection morphine multiwalled carbon nanotube nafion naltrexone nanoparticle new coccine nicotine norepinephrine paracetamol plain carbon paste electrode poly (amidosulfonic acid) polypyrrole procaine pyrolytic graphite electrode risperidone serotonin silver nanoparticles single walled carbon nanotubes sodium dodecyl sulfate square-wave voltammetry sumatriptan thioridazine titanium dioxide nanoparticles tramadol trazodone trimipramine
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