Abstract
Phosphorene is a promising candidate as a membrane material additive because of its inherent photocatalytic properties and electrical conductance which can help reduce fouling and improve membrane properties. The main objective of this study was to characterize structural and morphologic changes arising from the addition of phosphorene to polymeric membranes. Here, phosphorene was physically incorporated into a blend of polysulfone (PSf) and sulfonated poly ether ether ketone (SPEEK) doping solution. Protein and dye rejection studies were carried out to determine the permeability and selectivity of the membranes. Since loss of material additives during filtration processes is a challenge, the stability of phosphorene nanoparticles in different environments was also examined. Furthermore, given that phosphorene is a new material, toxicity studies with a model nematode, Caenorhabditis elegans, were carried out to provide insight into the biocompatibility and safety of phosphorene. Results showed that membranes modified with phosphorene displayed a higher protein rejection, but lower flux values. Phosphorene also led to a 70% reduction in dye fouling after filtration. Additionally, data showed that phosphorene loss was negligible within the membrane matrix irrespective of the pH environment. Phosphorene caused toxicity to nematodes in a free form, while no toxicity was observed for membrane permeates.
Highlights
Membranes play a crucial role in the purification of water and wastewater [1]
The membranes modified with morphology studies indicated that phosphorene membranes had rougher surfaces, while the sulfonated poly ether ether ketone (SPEEK): PSf membranes had smoother surfaces, which was likely due to some agglomeration caused by water being used as the nonsolvent during membrane fabrication via nonsolvent-induced phase separation (NIPS)
It was observed that phosphorene formed spherical distinct nanoparticles after exfoliation in basic-N-methyl pyrrolidone (NMP) and clustered spherical nanoparticles in water because of the effect of the flux of hydrogen ions (H+ ) within the nanoparticle system
Summary
Within the broad range of membrane materials, polymeric membranes are attractive because they exhibit high chemical and mechanical resistance and offer a wide range of pore sizes; polymeric membranes are plagued by fouling, which is a problem that has hindered fast adaptation of membranes in relevant fields [2]. Fouling is the buildup of unwanted materials on the membrane surface and within the pore structure. Fouling materials are grouped under three generic headings, namely organic foulants (proteins, humic and other organic compounds), inorganic foulants (mineral salts, crystallized salts, oxides and hydroxides and colloidal particles) and biologic foulants (biofilm formation by microorganisms) [3]. Fouling inhibits membrane performance as measured by permeability and selectivity, increases membrane maintenance costs, and shortens the lifespan of the membrane [4]. Membranes can be functionalized with reactive nanomaterials to improve their fouling
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