Abstract
Nanocelluloses have emerged as a catalogue of renewable nanomaterials for bioink formulation in service of 3D bioprinting, thanks to their structural similarity to extracellular matrices and excellent biocompatibility of supporting crucial cellular activities. From a material scientist’s viewpoint, this mini-review presents the key research aspects of the development of the nanocellulose-based bioinks in 3D (bio)printing. The nanomaterial properties of various types of nanocelluloses, including bacterial nanocellulose, cellulose nanofibers, and cellulose nanocrystals, are reviewed with respect to their origins and preparation methods. Different cross-linking strategies to integrate into multicomponent nanocellulose-based bioinks are discussed in terms of regulating ink fidelity in direct ink writing as well as tuning the mechanical stiffness as a bioactive cue in the printed hydrogel construct. Furthermore, the impact of surface charge and functional groups on nanocellulose surface on the crucial cellular activities (e.g., cell survival, attachment, and proliferation) is discussed with the cell–matrix interactions in focus. Aiming at a sustainable and cost-effective alternative for end-users in biomedical and pharmaceutical fields, challenging aspects such as biodegradability and potential nanotoxicity of nanocelluloses call for more fundamental comprehension of the cell–matrix interactions and further validation in in vivo models.
Highlights
For developing hydrogel scaffolds that mimic the three-dimensional (3D) architecture of tissue and recapitulate the biological functions, 3D bioprinting stands out to enable the creation of tailor-made tissue engineering scaffolds with individually and digitally designed architecture, and, integrating with biological cues to direct cell response in a controlled manner [1,2]
Nanocelluloses have emerged as a catalogue of renewable nanomaterials for bioink formulation in service of 3D bioprinting, thanks to their structural similarity to extracellular matrices and excellent biocompatibility of supporting crucial cellular activities
A large variety of natural polymers commonly used in bioink formulation exemplify collagen, gelatin, and hyaluronic acid in the animal-derived resource catalogue, chitosan and alginate in the marine-derived resource catalogue, and polysaccharides derived from various plant resources [3]
Summary
For developing hydrogel scaffolds that mimic the three-dimensional (3D) architecture of tissue and recapitulate the biological functions, 3D bioprinting stands out to enable the creation of tailor-made tissue engineering scaffolds with individually and digitally designed architecture, and, integrating with biological cues to direct cell response in a controlled manner [1,2] This additive manufacturing technique is based on layered strand-deposition of cell-laden hydrogels and allows digital control over complex geometry (shape, size, and distribution of pores in architecture) to construct functional tissue mimics [3,4]. A bioink should exhibit acceptable cell viability while meeting the physical requirements necessary for printing Such a multicomponent biomaterial system can provide appropriate surface and adequate space to accommodate cells and other bioactive substances (e.g., cytokine and growth factors) in a biocompatible polymer matrix, as well as direct the crucial cellular activities in three dimensions. We acknowledge a few other up-to-date reviews that have extensively summarised the usage of cellulose and its derivatives in a wider range of scenarios, e.g., the selection of cellulosic materials, the adapted 3D printing techniques, and the underlined applications, to which readers are referred for potential interests [6,7,8]
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