Abstract
ABSTRACTFor animals to survive until reproduction, it is crucial that juveniles successfully detect potential predators and respond with appropriate behavior. The recognition of cues originating from predators can be innate or learned. Cues of various modalities might be used alone or in multi-modal combinations to detect and distinguish predators but studies investigating multi-modal integration in predator avoidance are scarce. Here, we used wild, naive tadpoles of the Neotropical poison frog Allobates femoralis ( Boulenger, 1884) to test their reaction to cues with two modalities from two different sympatrically occurring potential predators: heterospecific predatory Dendrobates tinctorius tadpoles and dragonfly larvae. We presented A. femoralis tadpoles with olfactory or visual cues, or a combination of the two, and compared their reaction to a water control in a between-individual design. In our trials, A. femoralis tadpoles reacted to multi-modal stimuli (a combination of visual and chemical information) originating from dragonfly larvae with avoidance but showed no reaction to uni-modal cues or cues from heterospecific tadpoles. In addition, visual cues from conspecifics increased swimming activity while cues from predators had no effect on tadpole activity. Our results show that A. femoralis tadpoles can innately recognize some predators and probably need both visual and chemical information to effectively avoid them. This is the first study looking at anti-predator behavior in poison frog tadpoles. We discuss how parental care might influence the expression of predator avoidance responses in tadpoles.
Highlights
Avoiding predation is a major goal in all organisms
We investigated anti-predator behavior in tadpoles of the Neotropical brilliant-thighed poison frog Allobates femoralis (Boulenger, 1884) (Dendrobatidae: Aromobatinae sensu AmphibiaWeb, 2021), a species that occurs throughout the Amazon basin and the Guyana shield in disjunctive local populations (Amézquita et al, 2009)
Tadpoles avoided the center of the arena when a combination of both chemical and visual cues originating from dragonfly larvae was added [LME, estimate=0.135, lower–upper confidence interval (CI)=0.019– 0.250, t=2.242, P=0.028; Fig. 2C]
Summary
Avoiding predation is a major goal in all organisms. Animals lacking defensive weapons or protective morphological structures have to rely on behavior to minimize detection, capture and/or consumption by predators (Petranka, 1989; Lima and Dill, 1990). Predator-induced defense behaviors are found in many species that face temporal or spatial variation in predation risk (Kats and Dill, 1998). While reduced mobility and activity or hiding can considerably reduce predation risk (Lawler, 1989), it reduces the time available for mating and foraging (Sih, 1987). Such physiological or reproductive trade-offs are found across a wide range of taxa (Tollrian and Harvell, 1999) and have probably led to the evolution of flexible anti-predator responses in animals (Reber et al, 2021)
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