Abstract
We determined the phenotypic profile of multidrug-resistant (MDR) Escherichia coli isolated from 698 samples (390 and 308 from poultry and domestic pigs, respectively). In total, 562 Enterobacteria were isolated. About 80.5% of the isolates were E. coli. Occurrence of E. coli was significantly higher among domestic pigs (73.1%) than in poultry (60.5%) (p = 0.000). In both poultry and domestic pigs, E. coli isolates were highly resistant to tetracycline (63.5%), nalidixic acid (53.7%), ampicillin (52.3%), and trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole (50.9%). About 51.6%, 65.3%, and 53.7% of E. coli were MDR, extended-spectrum beta lactamase-producing enterobacteriaceae (ESBL-PE), and quinolone-resistant, respectively. A total of 68% of the extended-spectrum beta lactamase (ESBL) producers were also resistant to quinolones. For all tested antibiotics, resistance was significantly higher in ESBL-producing and quinolone-resistant isolates than the non-ESBL producers and non-quinolone-resistant E. coli. Eight isolates were resistant to eight classes of antimicrobials. We compared phenotypic with genotypic results of 20 MDR E. coli isolates, ESBL producers, and quinolone-resistant strains and found 80% harbored blaCTX-M, 15% aac(6)-lb-cr, 10% qnrB, and 5% qepA. None harbored TEM, SHV, qnrA, qnrS, qnrC, or qnrD. The observed pattern and level of resistance render this portfolio of antibiotics ineffective for their intended use.
Highlights
In a recent study conducted among poultry and pig farmers in the Msimbazi River basin, we found high usage of veterinary antimicrobials mainly for prophylaxis (87.6%) compared to therapy (80.5%) [24]
Isolation of E. coli was higher in domestic pigs (73.1%) than in poultry (60.5%) (p = 0.000), while poultry harbored more K. pneumoniae (2.3%) compared to domestic pigs (1.9%)
The level of resistance identified in this study compares with the findings reported in Zimbabwe, Nigeria, Ghana, and China which were attributed to extensive use of veterinary drugs in animal farming [41,42,43,44]
Summary
It is estimated that 10 million people will die annually by 2050 if no appropriate measures are taken [2]. It is projected, by that time, that AMR will be the leading cause of death worldwide [3]. By that time, that AMR will be the leading cause of death worldwide [3] This has prompted research on natural products such as ascidians that have shown broad antimicrobial (antibacterial, antifungal, and antiviral) activity [4]. In 2014, the consumption of antibiotics for human use was estimated to be 70 billion standard units/year, while for livestock, the amount was approximately
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