Multi-Year Continuous Observations of Ambient PM2.5 at Six Sites in Akure, Southwestern Nigeria

Abstract

The spatial–temporal variations of fine particulate matter (PM2.5) in Akure, a city in southwestern Nigeria, are examined based on multi-year continuous observations using low-cost PM2.5 sensors at six different sites. The average annual concentration of PM2.5 across these sites was measured at 41.0 µg/m3, which surpassed both the Nigerian national air quality standard and the World Health Organization air quality guideline level. PM2.5 levels were significantly higher during the dry season (November–March), often exceeding hazardous levels (over 350 µg/m3), than during the wet season. The analyses of trends in air mass trajectories and satellite data on fire occurrences imply that the transport of dust and accumulation of PM2.5 originating from local/regional open burning activities played crucial roles in increased PM2.5 concentrations during the dry season. Further, site-to-site variations in the PM2.5 levels were observed, with relatively high concentrations at less urbanized sites, likely due to high local emissions from solid fuel combustion, waste burning, and unpaved road dust. Diurnal patterns showed morning and evening peaks at less urbanized sites, accounting for an estimated 51–77% of local emissions. These results highlight the importance of local emission sources in driving spatial–temporal PM2.5 variations within the city and the need for targeted mitigation strategies to address the significant air pollution challenges in Akure and similar regional cities in West Africa.