Abstract
• Multi-Stage HTL produced higher bio-oil yield compared to Single-Stage process. • Three feedstocks were examined for Multi-Stage HTL: KwWs, UUIND6, and Co-HTL. • KwWs attained the highest bio-oil yield, HHV, and energy recovery. • There was no statistically significant Co-HTL impact seen. This study aims to elucidate the effect of Multi-Stage HTL with a constant resident time of 30 min for three different feedstocks including kitchen wastewater sludge (KwWs), freshwater microalgae Chlorella sorokiniana (UUIND6), Co-HTL (KwWs + UUIND6) to obtain the maximum bio-oil yield. According to the results obtained, KwWs appears to be the most suitable for conversion into energy-dense bio-oil under a sustainable biorefinery approach for increased bio-oil yields i.e., 72.75 ± 0.37 wt%, with HHV of 40.52 MJ/kg and energy recovery of 53.64 wt%. Further, the bio-oils and bio-chars derived from different types of biomasses obtained at different temperature conditions were analyzed by GC–MS, NMR, FTIR, and Raman spectroscopy to identify variations in the bio-crude compounds.
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