Abstract

The management of lepidopterous pests can be multifaceted. Many techniques are available for suppression or eradication such as (1) habitat manipulation, (2) plant breeding, (3) genetic alteration of the pest, (4) pheromone-based trapping, (5) natural enemy enhancement, and (6) chemical pesticides. Historically, lepidopterous pests of forests and woodlands, such as, gypsy moth, eastern spruce budworm, western spruce budworm, and Douglas fir tussock moth, have been managed using chemical pesticides and/or natural enemies. However, since the mid-1980s a bacterial biological control agent, Bacillus thuringiensis Berliner var. kurstaki (Btk; applied as live spores) has been widely used for suppression or eradication of lepidopterous forest pests (Beegle and Yamamoto 1992, Martin 1994, Milner 1994).

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