Abstract
Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) are a family of zinc- and calcium-dependent endopeptidases which are secreted or anchored in the cell membrane and are capable of degrading the multiple components of the extracellular matrix (ECM). MMPs are frequently overexpressed or highly activated in numerous human diseases. Owing to the important role of MMPs in human diseases, many MMP inhibitors (MMPIs) have been developed as novel therapeutics, and some of them have entered clinical trials. However, so far, only one MMPI (doxycycline) has been approved by the FDA. Therefore, the evaluation of the activity of a specific subset of MMPs in human diseases using clinically relevant imaging techniques would be a powerful tool for the early diagnosis and assessment of the efficacy of therapy. In recent years, numerous MMPIs labeled imaging agents have emerged. This article begins by providing an overview of the MMP subfamily and its structure and function. The latest advances in the design of subtype selective MMPIs and their biological evaluation are then summarized. Subsequently, the potential use of MMPI-labeled diagnostic agents in clinical imaging techniques are discussed, including positron emission tomography (PET), single-photon emission computed tomography (SPECT) and optical imaging (OI). Finally, this article concludes with future perspectives and clinical utility.
Highlights
Molecular imaging is a rapidly emerging multidisciplinary field that can visualize physiological or pathological processes inside the body at the cellular or molecular level
The overexpression of different Matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) has been associated with a number of relevant diseases such as cancer, atherosclerosis, stroke, arthritis, cardiovascular diseases, periodontal disease, respiratory tract disorders, glomerulonephritis, abdominal aortic aneurysm expansion, inflammatory bowel disease, neurodegeneration, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, multiple sclerosis and liver fibrosis
Many MMP inhibitors (MMPIs) have been developed as novel therapeutics for these disorders, with some of them having entered clinical trials
Summary
Molecular imaging is a rapidly emerging multidisciplinary field that can visualize physiological or pathological processes inside the body at the cellular or molecular level. Many efforts have been made to improve the imaging instruments and advanced image reconstruction techniques to obtain high resolution images that disclose even tiny lesions and gather accurate quantification of pathological processes Both academia and the pharmaceutical industry are making a great effort to develop novel molecular imaging probes. There are numerous molecular imaging agents available both for preclinical and clinical applications, based on small molecules, peptides, affibodies, aptamers, antibodies and nanoparticles [2]. Many MMPIs have failed in the last phases of clinical trials mainly due to musculoskeletal toxicity, joint pain and swelling, as well as bone marrow suppression and venous thromboembolism These side-effects could be due to the high concentrations of inhibitors required for the therapy [3,4,5,6]. This work widens and updates previous reviews [6] reported in the literature which focused only on one disease [4,5] or one enzyme [3]
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