Abstract
Fungi represent one of the most diverse and abundant eukaryotes on earth. The interplay between mold exposure and the host immune system is still not fully elucidated. Literature research focusing on up-to-date publications is providing a heterogenous picture of evidence and opinions regarding the role of mold and mycotoxins in the development of immune diseases. While the induction of allergic immune responses by molds is generally acknowledged, other direct health effects like the toxic mold syndrome are controversially discussed. However, recent observations indicate a particular importance of mold/mycotoxin exposure in individuals with pre-existing dysregulation of the immune system, due to exacerbation of underlying pathophysiology including allergic and non-allergic chronic inflammatory diseases, autoimmune disorders, and even human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) disease progression. In this review, we focus on the impact of mycotoxins regarding their impact on disease progression in pre-existing immune dysregulation. This is complemented by experimental in vivo and in vitro findings to present cellular and molecular modes of action. Furthermore, we discuss hypothetical mechanisms of action, where evidence is missing since much remains to be discovered.
Highlights
The present review aims to indicate that, next to direct effects of mold and mycotoxin exposure in immunocompetent individuals, exposure in the presence of pre-existing immune dysregulation is of particular concern
Mold spores range in their size from 3 to 40 μm allowing them to flow in the air and being inhaled by animals and humans
Spores serve as vectors for mycotoxins and are pathogenic due to allergenic and infectious properties
Summary
Publisher’s Note: MDPI stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Molds are fungi, which grow in form of multicellular filaments called hyphae and are found in distinct environments: air, soil, plants, animals, and human hosts [5,6] It is present indoors and outdoors and grows in places with a lot of moisture [7]. Innate, and adaptive immune responses are essential for effective and successful elimination of infectious pathogens and toxic metabolites. These mechanisms might be disturbed in response to fungal cell wall antigens, or immunomodulatory and immunotoxic actions of mycotoxins, and are critical for the development or exacerbation of immune system-related diseases. Cellular, and molecular key mechanisms of these exacerbating effects in the progression of the underlying diseases are discussed
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