Abstract
The dynamic nature of cortical activation changes during language acquisition, including second-language learning, has not been fully elucidated. In this study, we administered two sets of reading and listening tests (Pre and Post) to participants who had begun to learn Japanese abroad. The two sets were separated by an interval of about 2 months of Japanese language training. We compared the results of longitudinal functional MRI experiments between the two time-points and obtained the following major findings. First, the left-dominant language areas, as well as bilateral visual and auditory areas, were activated, demonstrating the synergistic effects of multiple modalities. There was also significant activation in the bilateral hippocampi, indicating the expected involvement of memory-related processes. Second, consistent with the behavioral improvements from Pre to Post, the brain activations decreased in the left inferior and middle frontal gyri during the listening tests, as well as in the visual areas (the bilateral inferior and superior parietal lobules, and left inferior and middle occipital gyri) during the reading tests, while activations in the right superior and middle temporal gyri increased during the listening tests. These modality-dependent activation changes could not be explained by domain-general cognitive factors, such as habituation or familiarization, because we used completely different test sets for Pre and Post. Third, the posterior hippocampus showed a main effect of the hemisphere, whereas the anterior hippocampus showed a significant main effect of the event (i.e., specific to first listening events), reflecting initial encoding of auditory information alone. In summary, activation changes from Pre to Post indicate functional changes in modality-dependent networks over a short period of staying abroad, which would enable effective acquisition of a second language.
Highlights
Recent advances in human neuroimaging studies have revealed both anatomical and functional changes during second language (L2) acquisition (Chee et al, 2001; Reiterer et al, 2009; Schlegel et al, 2012; Li et al, 2014), which occur in the language-related regions required for first or native languages (L1), and possibly in other regions as well
By using diffusion magnetic resonance imaging, we have recently shown that the structural measure of the left arcuate fasciculus connecting the left inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and other language-related regions was significantly correlated with
Some functional MRI (fMRI) studies support the idea that ages of acquisition (AOA) affects cortical activations, such that the left IFG activation for grammatical processing in L2 is greater than that in L1 (Wartenburger et al, 2003), other fMRI studies have concluded that the degree of exposure to language affects the left IFG activation, even if the AOA is matched (Perani et al, 2003)
Summary
Recent advances in human neuroimaging studies have revealed both anatomical and functional changes during second language (L2) acquisition (Chee et al, 2001; Reiterer et al, 2009; Schlegel et al, 2012; Li et al, 2014), which occur in the language-related regions required for first or native languages (L1), and possibly in other regions as well. Some fMRI studies support the idea that AOA affects cortical activations, such that the left IFG activation for grammatical processing in L2 is greater than that in L1 (Wartenburger et al, 2003), other fMRI studies have concluded that the degree of exposure to language affects the left IFG activation, even if the AOA is matched (Perani et al, 2003) To resolve these conflicting claims, we have proposed that the cortical activations may initially increase upon onset of acquisition, remain at the increased level for some time, and fall during the consolidation of linguistic competence (see Figure 3E in Sakai, 2005). It is probable that the time course of L2 acquisition depends on the specific linguistic function we focus on
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