Abstract
A modal model is developed for the propagation of sound over an impedance ground plane in a stratified atmosphere which is downward refracting near the ground but upward refracting at high altitudes. The sound’s interaction with the ground is modeled by an impedance with both real and imaginary parts so that the ground is lossy as well as compliant. Such sound speed profiles are typical of the atmospheric boundary layer at night and, together with the ground impedance, have been used extensively to model ground to ground sound propagation in the nocturnal environment. Applications range from community noise and bioacoustics to meteorology. The downward refraction near the ground causes the propagation to be ducted, suggesting that the long range propagation is modal in nature. This duct is, however, leaky due to the upward refraction at high altitudes. The modal model presented here accounts for both the attenuation of sound by the ground as well as the leaky nature of the duct.
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