Abstract
In a predator–prey system, prey species may adapt to the presence of predators with behavioral changes such as increased vigilance, shifting habitats, or changes in their mobility. In North America, moose (Alces alces) have shown behavioral adaptations to presence of predators, but such antipredator behavioral responses have not yet been found in Scandinavian moose in response to the recolonization of wolves (Canis lupus). We studied travel speed and direction of movement of GPS‐collared female moose (n = 26) in relation to spatiotemporal differences in wolf predation risk, reproductive status, and time of year. Travel speed was highest during the calving (May–July) and postcalving (August–October) seasons and was lower for females with calves than females without calves. Similarly, time of year and reproductive status affected the direction of movement, as more concentrated movement was observed for females with calves at heel, during the calving season. We did not find support for that wolf predation risk was an important factor affecting moose travel speed or direction of movement. Likely causal factors for the weak effect of wolf predation risk on mobility of moose include high moose‐to‐wolf ratio and intensive hunter harvest of the moose population during the past century.
Highlights
Behavior and movement patterns of animals reflect adaptive responses to environmental conditions as well as inter- and intraspecific interactions (Jonsen, Myers, & Flemming, 2003)
This study gave no support for the hypothesis that the re-establishment of wolves in Sweden has affected mobility in terms of either travel speed or direction of movement of female moose
Both travel speed and direction of movement were affected by seasonal changes and reproductive status
Summary
Behavior and movement patterns of animals reflect adaptive responses to environmental conditions as well as inter- and intraspecific interactions (Jonsen, Myers, & Flemming, 2003) Factors such as resource availability, reproductive status, and predation risk affect animal movement (van Beest, Rivrud, Loe, Milner, & Mysterud, 2011; Cederlund, 1989; Cederlund & Sand, 1994; Fortin et al, 2005; Stephens & Peterson, 1984). The presence of predators may result in lower travel speed as a response to increased vigilance (Berger, 1999; White & Berger, 2001) and thereby suppresses mobility (Lima & Dill, 1990) Such a reduction in movement can be a beneficial antipredator behavior, because moving animals are generally more detected by a predator than are inactive animals (Lima & Dill, 1990). We predicted that females with calves would be most likely to change movement patterns in response to wolf predation risk
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