Abstract
Abstract The infectious chytrid fungus Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) has been responsible for severe population declines of salamander populations in Europe. Serious population declines and loss of urodelan diversity may occur if appropriate action is not taken to mitigate against the further spread and impact of Bsal. We provide an overview of several potential mitigation methods, and describe their possible advantages and limitations. We conclude that long-term, context-dependent, multi-faceted approaches are needed to successfully mitigate adverse effects of Bsal, and that these approaches should be initiated pre-arrival of the pathogen. The establishment of ex situ assurance colonies, or management units, for species threatened with extinction, should be considered as soon as possible. While ex situ conservation and preventive measures aimed at improving biosecurity by limiting amphibian trade may be implemented quickly, major challenges that lie ahead are in designing in situ disease containment and mitigation post-arrival and in increasing public awareness.
Highlights
Infection of an amphibian host with the chytrid fungi Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) or B. salamandrivorans (Bsal), may cause clinical chytridiomycosis, an emerging infectious disease (EID) (Berger et al, 1998; Martel et al, 2013)
This recommendation states that the signatories develop a number of precautions, including i) imposing trade restrictions on salamanders until risk assessments and prevention/mitigation protocols have been developed, ii) pre-import screening for the pathogen in the live animal trade, iii) setting up and implementing monitoring, surveillance and early-warning systems to detect Batrachochytrium salamandrivorans (Bsal) incursion into the wild as well as the expansion of its range following its introduction, and iv) requiring biosecurity for field work, breeding sites and captive collections
Since the international trade of salamanders and newts is suspected to be the principal route for the international spread of Bsal, bans/restrictions on amphibian trade, alongside controls at import pathways, are likely to be the most effective precautionary measures for preventing the introduction of Bsal via amphibian vectors in Bsal-free countries (Fitzpatrick et al, 2018; O’Hanlon et al, 2018)
Summary
Infection of an amphibian host with the chytrid fungi Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd) or B. salamandrivorans (Bsal), may cause clinical chytridiomycosis, an emerging infectious disease (EID) (Berger et al, 1998; Martel et al, 2013). In-depth study of a similar outbreak in Belgium in 2014 demonstrated how the interplay between host, pathogen and environment is predicted to result in the extirpation of the affected fire salamander population (Stegen et al, 2017) Both Bd and Bsal are highly contagious and are transmitted effectively by direct contact with pathogen shedding hosts or indirectly by contact with contaminated water or substrate (Bosch and Martinez-Solano, 2006; Garmyn et al, 2012; Kolby et al, 2014; Martel et al, 2014; Courtois et al, 2017; Stegen et al, 2017).
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