Mirror-Image Twins: The Communities of Science and Technology in 19th-Century America

Abstract

American technology went through a scientific revolution in 19th century. Technological knowledge was uprooted from its ma- trix in centuries-old craft traditions and grafted onto science. The technological community, which in 1800 had been a craft affair but little changed since middle ages, was reconstructed as a mirror- image twin of scientific community. The artisan was replaced in vanguard of technological progress by a new breed of scien- tific practitioner. For oral traditions passed from master to ap- prentice, new technologist substituted a college education, a professional organization, and a technical literature patterned on those of science. Equivalents were created in technology for experimental and theoretical branches of science. As a result, by end of 19th century, technological problems could be treated as scientific ones; traditional methods and cut-and-try empiricism could be supplemented by powerful tools borrowed from science. This change was most marked in physical sciences and civil, mechanical, and electrical engineering, subject of this paper. But similar changes were taking place at same time in relations of chemistry, biology, geology, and other sciences to their correspond- ing technologies. The result might be termed the scientific revolu- tion in The significance, indeed very existence, of scientific revo- lution in technology has been obscured by a commonly accepted model of relationships between science and technology. In es- sence, this holds that science creates new knowledge which tech- DR. LAYTON, of graduate program in history of science and technology at Case Western Reserve University, is editor of A Regional Union Catalog of Manu- scripts Relating to History of Science and Technology Located in Indiana, Michigan, and Ohio, and author of The Revolt of Engineers: Social Responsibility and American Engineering Profession. This paper was originally presented at symposium on