Minerals as a refuge from conflict: Evidence from the quarry sector in Africa

Abstract

Natural resources are often recognised as a driver of conflict and have been found to have played a role in up to 40% of all intrastate conflicts. Natural resource-related conflicts are commonly argued to arise in situations of the scarcity of livelihood resources; abundance of high-value extractable resources; resource dependence; grievances related to resource extraction; and the resource curse – where wealth may harm a state's prospects for development. Minerals such as tin, tungsten, tantalum, gold, and diamonds have been explicitly linked with conflict under the nomenclature of ‘conflict minerals' and ‘blood diamonds.’ In this paper, we introduce an under-recognised association between minerals, conflict and peace, whereby minerals extraction instead provides a refuge for internally displaced peoples (IDPs) in the aftermath of conflict. Whereas high-value export minerals may be a target of control for conflict actors, we present evidence that low-price domestically consumed minerals, so-called Development Minerals, such as crushed stone, sand, limestone and gravel, provide a livelihood opportunity for IDPs during the post-conflict recovery. The demand for construction materials is high during the (re)construction phase after conflicts (war) and a key ingredient in infrastructure such as roads, houses, schools, and health facilities. The paper presents two descriptive case studies based on fieldwork conducted in Northern Uganda and Far North Cameroon. In both cases, the quarry workers (mostly ex-war victims) formed cooperatives to extract construction materials used for post-war reconstruction and provided livelihood to the workers. The findings add to our understanding of the relationships between natural resources, conflict and peace and are part of the growing body of research on the role of Development Minerals in development.