Abstract
Ceramic objects in whole or in fragments usually account for the majority of findings in an archaeological excavation. Thus, through examination of the values these items bear, it is possible to extract important information regarding raw materials provenance and ceramic technology. For this purpose, either traditional examination protocols could be followed, focusing on the macroscopic/morphological characteristics of the ancient object, or more sophisticated physicochemical techniques are employed. Nevertheless, there are cases where, due to the uniqueness and the significance of an object of archaeological value, sampling is impossible. Then, the available analytical tools are extremely limited, especially when molecular information and mineral phase identification is required. In this context, the results acquired from a multiphase clay ceramic dated on Early Neopalatioal period ΜΜΙΙΙΑLMIA (1750 B.C.E.–1490 B.C.E.), from the Minoan Bronze Age site at Philioremos (Crete, Greece) through the application of Raman confocal spectroscopy, a nondestructive/ noninvasive method are reported. The spectroscopic results are confirmed through the application of Xray microdiffraction and scanning electron microscopy coupled with energy dispersive Xray spectrometry. Moreover, it is demonstrated how it is made possible through the application of microRaman (μRaman) spectroscopy to examine and collect crucial information from very small inclusions in the ceramic fabric. The aim of this approach is to develop an analytical protocol based on μRaman spectroscopy, for extracting firing temperature information from other ceramic finds (figurines) where due to their uniqueness sampling and analyses through other techniques is not possible. This information can lead to dating but also to firing kiln technology extrapolations that are very significant in archaeology.
Highlights
Spectroscopic methods have become a vital investigative tool in determinative mineralogy [1–3]
The main analytical tool utilized is micro-Raman spectroscopy, the results are confirmed and enhanced by the application of X-ray microdiffraction and electron scanning microscopy coupled with energy dispersive X-ray spectrometry (SEM–EDS)
Minerals identified in an archaeological artefact can be classified as follows: the primary minerals are those that were present in the raw material, like quartz, which do not undergo reactions in a wide range of temperature
Summary
Spectroscopic methods have become a vital investigative tool in determinative mineralogy [1–3]. Micro-Raman spectroscopy has been applied for mineral identification both in ceramic mass/clay as well as in the pigments used for decoration [6–11]. In this framework, indicative information about the firing conditions (e.g., atmosphere and temperature) can be acquired through the identification of raw material composition, but most importantly, through the chemical transformations that the constituent minerals undergo during the firing process. Several recent studies aiming to the mineralogical characterization and firing temperature determination of ancient ceramics focus on the application of micro-Raman spectroscopy [10,12,13]. Micro-Raman spectroscopy has been selected as the technique of choice due to several advantages, such as rapid and reliable characterization of the mineralogical phases of a ceramic material [14]. For an accurate estimation of the mineralogical transformations, it is advantageous to consider the effect of burial and post-burial steps [15]
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