Abstract
Mineralized biomaterials have been demonstrated to enhance bone regeneration compared to their non-mineralized analogs. As non-mineralized scaffolds do not perform as well as mineralized scaffolds in terms of their mechanical and surface properties, osteoconductivity and osteoinductivity, mineralization strategies are promising methods in the development of functional biomimetic bone scaffolds. In particular, the mineralization of three-dimensional (3D) scaffolds has become a promising approach for guided bone regeneration. In this paper, we review the major approaches used for mineralizing tissue engineering constructs. The resulting scaffolds provide minerals chemically similar to the inorganic component of natural bone, carbonated apatite, Ca5(PO4,CO3)3(OH). In addition, we discuss the characterization techniques that are used to characterize the mineralized scaffolds, such as the degree of mineralization, surface characteristics, mechanical properties of the scaffolds, and the chemical composition of the deposited minerals. In vitro cell culture studies show that the mineralized scaffolds are highly osteoinductive. We also summarize, based on literature examples, the applications of 3D mineralized constructs, as well as the rationale behind their use. The mineralized scaffolds have improved bone regeneration in animal models due to the enhanced mechanical properties and cell recruitment capability making them a preferable option for bone tissue engineering over non-mineralized scaffolds.
Highlights
IntroductionDuring the natural process of bone repair, the first thing to form is a hematoma at the site of fracture or bone loss
Rod-like nanocrystal hydroxyapatite was formed on the scaffold with good biocompatibility
Mineralized scaffolds are promising candidates when it comes to implantable biomaterials for bone repair and regeneration
Summary
During the natural process of bone repair, the first thing to form is a hematoma at the site of fracture or bone loss This hematoma serves as the source of various growth factors (interleukin-6 (IL-6), insulin-like growth factor (IGF), transforming growth factor β (TGF-β), fibroblast growth factor (FGF), and vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF)) for bone regeneration [2]. These growth factors promote the recruitment of mesenchymal stem cells that are committed to the osteoblast lineage, a process mediated by canonical Wnt/β-catenin pathway [3,4]. In circumstances where a scaffold composed of the natural matrix, such as when there are remaining bone fragments and periosteum, is not available a tissue engineered scaffold is indispensable for bone regeneration
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