Microphysics of KCl and ZnS Clouds on GJ 1214 b

Abstract

Abstract Clouds in the atmospheres of exoplanets confound characterization efforts by reducing, eliminating, and distorting the spectral signatures of molecular abundances. As such, interpretations of exoplanet spectra strongly depend on the choice of cloud model, many of which are highly simplified and lack predictive power. In this work, we use a cloud model that incorporates microphysical processes to simulate potassium chloride (KCl) and zinc sulfide (ZnS) clouds in the atmosphere of the super-Earth GJ 1214 b and how they vary as a function of the strength of vertical mixing and the atmospheric metallicity. Microphysical processes control the size and spatial distribution of cloud particles, allowing for the computation of more physical cloud distributions than simpler models. We find that the mass and opacity of KCl clouds increase with mixing strength and metallicity, with the particle size and spatial distribution defined by nucleation, condensation, evaporation, and transport timescales. ZnS clouds cannot form without the presence of condensation nuclei, while heterogeneous nucleation of ZnS on KCl reduces particle sizes compared to pure KCl cases. In order to explain the flat transmission spectrum of GJ 1214 b with homogeneously nucleated KCl clouds, the atmospheric metallicity must be at least 1000× solar, and the eddy diffusivity must be at least 1010 cm2 s−1. We predict that James Webb Space Telescope observations of GJ 1214 b may reveal the presence of methane, carbon monoxide, and water, allowing for constraints to be placed on atmospheric metallicity and C/O ratio.